Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination
Abstract
We study race in the labor market by sending fictitious resumes to help-wanted ads in Boston and Chicago newspapers. To manipulate perceived race, resumes are randomly assigned African-American- or White-sounding names. White names receive 50 percent more callbacks for interviews. Callbacks are also more responsive to resume quality for White names than for African-American ones. The racial gap is uniform across occupation, industry, and employer size. We also find little evidence that employers are inferring social class from the names. Differential treatment by race still appears to still be prominent in the U.S. labor market.
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Job applicants with African American-associated names receive fewer callbacks despite identical qualifications.
“job applicants with African American-associated names receive fewer callbacks despite identical qualifications [10]”
From All Public Voices Are Equal, But Are Some More Equal Than Others to LLMs? (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
Names reliably trigger differential treatment in experimental research.
“Names reliably trigger differential treatment in experimental research”
From All Public Voices Are Equal, But Are Some More Equal Than Others to LLMs? (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
The original Bertrand and Mullainathan study found a 50% callback gap.
“the original Bertrand and Mullainathan [10] study finding a 50% callback gap.”
From All Public Voices Are Equal, But Are Some More Equal Than Others to LLMs? (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
In Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004), résumés with white names were 50 percent more likely than those with black names to receive callbacks, 9.7 versus 6.5 percent.
“Résumés with white names were 50 percent more likely than those with black names to receive callbacks from employers (9.7 versus 6.5 percent).”
From Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment (2009) · cites this paper as Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004)
Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) used a correspondence test that randomly assigned résumé characteristics to white- and black-sounding names, largely removing concerns about unobserved characteristics.
“Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) remove tester effects in a “correspondence test” that sent résumés with common white and black names to employers in Boston and Chicago. Their design allows the random assignment of résumé characteristics to white- and black-sounding names, largely removing concerns about unobserved characteristics.”
From Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment (2009) · cites this paper as Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004)
The findings add to evidence of racial discrimination in employment from recent field experiments in Milwaukee, Boston, and Chicago.
“Our findings for the New York City labor market add to evidence of racial discrimination in employment reported from recent field experiments in Milwaukee, Boston, and Chicago (Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004; Pager 2003).”
From Discrimination in a Low-Wage Labor Market: A Field Experiment (2009) · cites this paper as Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004
Resumes with white-sounding names receive 50% more callbacks for interviews than resumes with Black-sounding names.
“For example, Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004) responded to 1300 employment ads with more than 5000 resumes, some with Black sounding names and others with white, and found that resumes with white names receive 50% more callbacks for interviews.”
From Conceptualizing color-evasiveness: using dis/ability critical race theory to expand a color-blind racial ideology in education and society (2017) · cites this paper as Bertrand and Mullainathan (2004)
Changing names from white-sounding ones to black-sounding ones on CVs in the US had a negative effect on callbacks.
“one widely cited study found that simply changing names from white-sounding ones to black-sounding ones on CVs in the US had a negative effect on callbacks [8].”
From Implicit bias in healthcare professionals: a systematic review (2017) · cites this paper as [8]
The finding that there is an interplay between occupational gender composition and race parallels results of ongoing studies that investigate both race and gender to explain hiring discrimination.
“Second, our finding that there is an interplay between occupational gender composition and race parallels the results of ongoing studies that investigate both race and gender to explain hiring discrimination (Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004;Chavez, Weisshaar, and Cabello-Hutt 2022;Deming et al. 2016).”
From Getting a Foot in the Door: A Meta-Analysis of U.S. Audit Studies of Gender Bias in Hiring (2025) · cites this paper as Bertrand and Mullainathan 2004
Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004) found little evidence of variation in discrimination over four white-collar occupations or industries.
“The classic study by Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004) finds little evidence of variation in discrimination over four white-collar occupations or industries, noting the surprising uniformity of discrimination.”
From Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field Experiments (2021) · cites this paper as Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004)
Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004) pioneered the technique of using distinctive Black names to conduct employment tests via mail, which has become a standard method in later research.
“The study by Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004) pioneered the technique of using distinctive Black names to conduct employment tests via mail, which has become a standard method in later research.”
From Comparative Perspectives on Racial Discrimination in Hiring: The Rise of Field Experiments (2021) · cites this paper as Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004)
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- Authors
- Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S.
- Affiliations
- Center for Economic and Policy Research (US)
- National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
- Venue
- American Economic Review
- Publisher
- American Economic Association
- Published
- 2004-09-01
- Volume
- 94
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 991-1013
- ISSN
- 0002-8282 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3123223998
- Cited by
- 4,504
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 261 · 2025: 349 · 2024: 298 · 2023: 295 · 2022: 322 · 2021: 304 · 2020: 341 · 2019: 376 · 2018: 251 · 2017: 226 · 2016: 206 · 2015: 170 · 2014: 214 · 2013: 150 · 2012: 144
- FWCI
- 186.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Economic Review (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Labor market dynamics and wage inequality
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Keywords
- racial discrimination in labor markets, name-based discrimination, perceived race, callbacks, job applications, hiring discrimination, Boston, Chicago
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