Race and disparities in sentencing: A test of the liberation hypothesis
Abstract
This paper builds on Kalven and Zeisel's “liberation hypothesis” and explores the possibility that racial discrimination in sentencing is confined to less serious cases. We examined the sentences imposed on defendants convicted of violent felonies in Detroit. We found that defendant's race had a direct effect only on the decision to incarcerate but had indirect effects on both incarceration and sentence length. Further analysis revealed an interaction between the race of the defendant, the seriousness of the case, and the harshness of the sentence. Using a number of measures of the seriousness of the case, we found that race had a significant effect on incarceration only in less serious cases. Our findings provide dramatic support for the liberation hypothesis and highlight the importance of using an interactive rather than an additive model in sentencing research.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The likelihood of extralegal factors seeping into criminal justice agents' decision-making is greatest when legal factors are murkiest.
“The likelihood of these extralegal factors seeping into criminal justice agents' decision-making is greatest when legal factors (e.g., offense seriousness, evidence of criminal activity) are murkiest (Kalven & Zeisel, 1966;Reskin & Visher, 1986;Spohn & Cederblom, 1991).”
From Procedural Justice and Order Maintenance Policing: A Study of Inner‐City Young Men’s Perceptions of Police Legitimacy (2010) · cites this paper as Spohn & Cederblom, 1991
Cites
Linear Probability, Logit, and Probit Models
Aldrich, J. H., & Nelson, F. D. (1984) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412984744 · Cited by 2,622 · see citing works
Shadow Prices, Market Wages, and Labor Supply
Heckman, J. (1974) · Econometrica · doi:10.2307/1913937 · Cited by 1,852 · see citing works
An Introduction to Sample Selection Bias in Sociological Data
Berk, R. A. (1983) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095230 · Cited by 1,213 · see citing works
Kalven, H., & Zeisel, H. (1971) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 557 · see citing works
Extra-Legal Attributes and Criminal Sentencing: An Assessment of a Sociological Viewpoint
Hagan, J. L. (1974) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053080 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
The Practice of Law as Confidence Game Organizational Cooptation of a Profession
Blumberg, A. S. (1967) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3052933 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
Kleck, G. (1981) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095079 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
The Changing Forms of Racial/Ethnic Biases in Sentencing
Zatz, M. S. (1987) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427887024001005 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Research on Sentencing: The Search for Reform
Harris, D. J., Blumstein, A., Cohen, J., Martin, S. B., & Tonry, M. (1984) · The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-) · doi:10.2307/1143656 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
The Prosecutor's Role in Plea Bargaining
Alschuler, A. W. (1968) · The University of Chicago Law Review · doi:10.2307/1598832 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
The myth of a racist criminal justice system
Wilbanks, W. L. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Comparative Review of Death Sentences: An Empirical Study of the Georgia Experience
Baldus, D. C., Pulaski, C. A. J., & Woodworth, G. G. (1983) · The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-) · doi:10.2307/1143133 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Rape and Criminal Justice: The Social Construction of Sexual Assault.
Bourque, L. B., & Lafree, G. D. (1990) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2072362 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Research on sentencing: The search for reform
(1984) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/0047-2352(84)90034-5 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
The Effect of Race on Sentencing: A Re-Examination of An Unsettled Question
Spohn, C., Gruhl, J., & Welch, S. (1982) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053550 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Self-citationRacial Characteristics and the Imposition of the Death Penalty
Radelet, M. L. (1981) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095088 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Paternoster, R. (1984) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053431 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Arbitrariness and Discrimination under Post-Furman Capital Statutes
Bowers, W. J., & Pierce, G. L. (1980) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/001112878002600409 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Race and Prosecutorial Discretion in Homicide Cases
Radelet, M. L., & Pierce, G. L. (1985) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053422 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Do Black Judges Make a Difference?
Welch, S., Combs, M. W., & Gruhl, J. (1988) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2111313 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Selection biases in sociological data
Berk, R. A., & Ray, S. C. (1982) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/0049-089x(82)90003-5 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
The Sentencing Decisions of Black and White Judges: Expected and Unexpected Similarities
Spohn, C. (1990) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053666 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Self-citationMaking Sense of Sentencing: A Review and Critique of Sentencing Research
Hagan, J. L. (1983) · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Gross, S. R., & Mauro, R. (1984) · Stanford Law Review · doi:10.2307/1228652 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Mandatory Sentencing and Firearms Violence: Evaluating an Alternative to Gun Control
Loftin, C., Heumann, M., & McDowall, D. (1983) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053349 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
The Impacts of Evidence and Extralegal Factors in Jurors' Decisions
Reskin, B. F., & Visher, C. A. (1986) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053582 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
The Social Contexts of Racial Discrimination in Sentencing
Myers, M. A., & Talarico, S. M. (1986) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.1986.33.3.03a00060 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
ADVERSARIAL AND NONADVERSARIAL JUSTICE: A COMPARISON OF GUILTY PLEAS AND TRIALS*
LaFREE, G. D. (1985) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1985.tb00338.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Official Reactions to Hispanic Defendants in the Southwest
Lafree, G. D. (1985) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427885022003003 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Criminal Justice: Law and Politics
Cole, G. F. (1972) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Does It Pay to Plead Guilty? Differential Sentencing and the Functioning of Criminal Courts
Brereton, D., & Casper, J. D. (1982) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053549 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
The Prediction of Racial/Ethnic Sentencing Disparities: An Expectation States Approach
Unnever, J. D., & Hembroff, L. A. (1988) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427888025001004 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
RACE, HOMICIDE SEVERITY, AND APPLICATION OF THE DEATH PENALTY: A CONSIDERATION OF THE BARNETT SCALE*
KEIL, T. J., & Vito, G. F. (1989) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1989.tb01044.x · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Mandatory Sentencing and the Abolition of Plea Bargaining: The Michigan Felony Firearm Statute
Heumann, M., & Loftin, C. (1979) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053261 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Uhlman, T. M., & Walker, N. (1980) · Law & Society Review · doi:10.2307/3053316 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Race and Plea Bargained Outcomes: A Research Note
Humphrey, J. A., & Fogarty, T. J. (1987) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/66.1.176 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Arkin, S. D. (1980) · Stanford Law Review · doi:10.2307/1228523 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Resolving Status Inconsistency: An Expectation States Theory and Test
Hembroff, L. A. (1982) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/61.1.183 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The Supreme Court and the Criminal Process--Cases and Comments
Johnson, E. H., Lewis, P. W., & Peoples, K. D. (1979) · The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1973-) · doi:10.2307/1142976 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Gau, J. M., & Brunson, R. K. (2010) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820902763889 · Cited by 582 · see citing works
A Meta-Analysis of Race and Sentencing Research: Explaining the Inconsistencies
Mitchell, O. (2005) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-005-7362-7 · Cited by 492 · see citing works
CUMULATIVE DISADVANTAGE: EXAMINING RACIAL AND ETHNIC DISPARITY IN PROSECUTION AND SENTENCING
Kutateladze, B. L., Andiloro, N. R., Johnson, B. D., & Spohn, C. (2014) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12047 · Cited by 476 · see citing works
Self-citationRecent Developments and New Directions in Sentencing Research
Ulmer, J. T. (2011) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2011.624115 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
RACE, RACIAL THREAT, AND SENTENCING OF HABITUAL OFFENDERS*
Crawford, C., Chiricos, T., & Kleck, G. (1998) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01256.x · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Spohn, C., & Holleran, D. (2001) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820100095051 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Self-citationRacial and ethnic disparity in pretrial criminal processing
Schlesinger, T. (2005) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820500088929 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Rodriguez, S. F., Curry, T. R., & Lee, G. (2006) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2006.00383.x · Cited by 217 · see citing works
IMAGES OF DANGER AND CULPABILITY: RACIAL STEREOTYPING, CASE PROCESSING, AND CRIMINAL SENTENCING*
STEEN, S. J., Engen, R. L., & Gainey, R. R. (2005) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.0011-1348.2005.00013.x · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Leiber, M. J., & Mack, K. Y. (2003) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427802239253 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Criminal Courts as Inhabited Institutions: Making Sense of Difference and Similarity in Sentencing
Ulmer, J. T. (2019) · Crime and Justice · doi:10.1086/701504 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
RACE, ETHNICITY, THREAT AND THE LABELING OF CONVICTED FELONS*
Bontrager, S. R., Bales, W. D., & Chiricos, T. (2005) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.0011-1348.2005.00018.x · Cited by 172 · see citing works
VARIATION IN TRIAL PENALTIES AMONG SERIOUS VIOLENT OFFENSES*
Ulmer, J. T., & Bradley, M. S. (2006) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2006.00059.x · Cited by 167 · see citing works
The effect of offender and victim characteristics on sexual assault case processing decisions
Spohn, C., & Spears, J. W. (1996) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418829600093141 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Self-citationSpears, J. W., & Spohn, C. (1997) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418829700093451 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Self-citationOpening Pandora’s Box: How Does Defendant Race Influence Plea Bargaining?
Kutateladze, B. L., Andiloro, N. R., & Johnson, B. D. (2014) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2014.915340 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
White female victims and death penalty disparity research
Holcomb, J. E., Williams, M. R., & Demuth, S. (2004) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820400096021 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Piquero, A. R., & Brame, R. W. (2008) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128707307219 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Wang, X., Mears, D. P., Spohn, C., & Dario, L. M. (2009) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128709352234 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Imprisonment Penalty for Young Black and Hispanic Males
Warren, P. Y., Chiricos, T., & Bales, W. D. (2011) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427810397945 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
THE ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY IN PAROLE DECISIONS*
Huebner, B. M., & Bynum, T. S. (2008) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00130.x · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Gender and Sentencing of Drug Offenders: Is Chivalry Dead?
Spohn, C. (1999) · Criminal Justice Policy Review · doi:10.1177/088740349900900305 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Effect of Pretrial Detention on Imprisonment Decisions
Williams, M. R. (2003) · Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/073401680302800206 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Ulmer, J. T., Light, M. T., & Kramer, J. H. (2011) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2011.553726 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Racial prejudice and support by whites for police use of force: A research note
Barkan, S. E., & Cohn, S. F. (1998) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418829800093971 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Predicting Sexual Assault Prosecution Outcomes
Campbell, R., Patterson, D., Bybee, D. I., & Dworkin, E. R. (2009) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854809335054 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Sentencing Female Misdemeanants: An Examination of the Direct and Indirect Effects of Race/Ethnicity
Brennan, P. K. (2006) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418820600552477 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Static and Dynamic Indicators of Minority Threat in Sentencing Outcomes: A Multi-Level Analysis
Caravelis, C., Chiricos, T., & Bales, W. D. (2011) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-011-9130-1 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Racial Disparity in Formal Social Control
Ousey, G. C., & Lee, M. R. (2008) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427808317575 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Sacks, M., & Ackerman, A. R. (2012) · Criminal Justice Policy Review · doi:10.1177/0887403412461501 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Smith, B. L., & Damphousse, K. R. (1998) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01240.x · Cited by 82 · see citing works
A tale of two counties: Unemployment and sentence severity
Nobiling, T., Spohn, C., & DeLone, M. A. (1998) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418829800093841 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-citationGender and Case Processing Decisions
Spohn, C., & Spears, J. W. (1997) · Women & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1300/j012v08n03_02 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial Organization, Collective Sentiment, and Legal Sanctions in Murder Cases
Baumer, E. P., & Martin, K. H. (2013) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/672082 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
JUVENILITY AND PUNISHMENT: SENTENCING JUVENILES IN ADULT CRIMINAL COURT*
Kurlychek, M. C., & Johnson, B. D. (2010) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2010.00200.x · Cited by 77 · see citing works
The state of race and punishment in America: Is justice really blind?
Franklin, T. W. (2017) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.05.011 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
The effect of race and gender on bail outcomes: A test of an interactive model
Katz, C. M., & Spohn, C. (1995) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/bf02885913 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationHarrington, M. P., & Spohn, C. (2007) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427806295001 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationTellis, K., & Spohn, C. (2008) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2008.04.006 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Self-citationSchlesinger, T. (2008) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128708323629 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Spohn, C., & DeLone, M. A. (2000) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s1521-6136(2000)0000002005 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Self-citationIndividual and Contextual Influences on Sentence Lengths: Examining Political Conservatism
Huang, W. S. W., Finn, M. A., Ruback, R. B., & Friedmann, R. R. (1996) · The Prison Journal · doi:10.1177/0032855596076004003 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Hester, R., & Hartman, T. K. (2016) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-016-9283-z · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Omori, M., & Petersen, N. (2020) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12257 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Race/Ethnicity and Sentencing Outcomes Among Drug Offenders in North Carolina
Brennan, P. K., & Spohn, C. (2008) · Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice · doi:10.1177/1043986208322712 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Self-citationPUNISHING POLITICAL OFFENDERS: THE EFFECT OF POLITICAL MOTIVE ON FEDERAL SENTENCING DECISIONS*
Smith, B. L., & Damphousse, K. R. (1996) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1996.tb01209.x · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Punishment on the Installment Plan”
STEEN, S. J., & Opsal, T. D. (2007) · The Prison Journal · doi:10.1177/0032885507304526 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Racial Disparities in Federal Sentencing Outcomes: Clarifying the Role of Criminal History
Franklin, T. W., & Henry, T. K. S. (2020) · Crime and delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128719828353 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Spohn, C. (2007) · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationHave Federal Sentencing Guidelines Reduced Severity? An Examination of One Circuit
Kempf‐Leonard, K., & Sample, L. L. (2001) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1023/a:1011032013115 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Analytical Rigor in Studies of Disparities in Criminal Case Processing
WOOLDREDGE, J. D. (1998) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1023/a:1023076104837 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The intersection of defendants' race, gender, and age in prosecutorial decision making
Franklin, T. W. (2010) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2009.12.001 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Race, Ethnicity, and Habitual-Offender Sentencing
Crow, M. S., & Johnson, K. A. (2008) · Criminal Justice Policy Review · doi:10.1177/0887403407308476 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Austin, R. L., & ALLEN, M. D. (2000) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427800037002003 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The Interactive Effects of Victim Race and Gender on Death Sentence Disparity Findings
Williams, M. R., & Holcomb, J. E. (2004) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/1088767903262445 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Widening the scope on complaints of police misconduct
Hassell, K. D., & Archbold, C. A. (2010) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/13639511011066863 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Curry, T. R. (2010) · Punishment & Society · doi:10.1177/1462474510376585 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Just Another Crime? Examining Disparity in Homicide Sentencing
Auerhahn, K. (2007) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2007.00079.x · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Grattet, R., & Lin, J. (2014) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2014.932001 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Major Mental Illness as a Risk Factor for Incarceration
Hall, D. L., Lee, L., Manseau, M. W., Pope, L. G., Watson, A. C., & Compton, M. T. (2019) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201800425 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Driving racial profiling research forward: Learning lessons from sentencing research
Tillyer, R., & Hartley, R. D. (2010) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.04.039 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Effects of Individual Characteristics on Plea Negotiations Under Sentencing Guidelines
Frenzel, E. D., & Ball, J. D. (2008) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1300/j222v05n04_03 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The influence of victim ethnicity on arrest in violent crimes
Briggs, S. J., & Opsal, T. D. (2012) · Criminal Justice Studies · doi:10.1080/1478601x.2012.699735 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Race and the Criminal Justice System Response to Sexual Assault: A Systematic Review
Shaw, J., & Lee, H. (2019) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12334 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Female sex offenders and the criminal justice system: A comparison of arrests and outcomes
Sandler, J., & Freeman, N. J. (2010) · Journal of Sexual Aggression · doi:10.1080/13552600.2010.537380 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Cassidy, M. B., & Rydberg, J. (2019) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854819874090 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Tartaro, C., & Sedelmaier, C. M. (2009) · Criminal Justice Studies · doi:10.1080/14786010902975507 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Ball, J. D. (2006) · Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice · doi:10.1177/1043986206292369 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Race and Misdemeanor Sentencing
Leiber, M. J., & Blowers, A. N. (2003) · Criminal Justice Policy Review · doi:10.1177/0887403403254492 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Chen, E. Y. (2008) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377930802096462 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The Intersection of Crime Seriousness, Discretion, and Race: A Test of the Liberation Hypothesis
Hauser, W. J., & Peck, J. H. (2016) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2015.1121284 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Britt, C. (2009) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-009-9066-x · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Bond, C. E. W., & Jeffries, S. (2014) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azu034 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Paying the Trial Tax: Race, Guilty Pleas, and Disparity in Prosecution
Testa, A., & Johnson, B. (2019) · Criminal Justice Policy Review · doi:10.1177/0887403419838025 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Is a Plea Really a Bargain? An Analysis of Plea and Trial Dispositions in New York City
Kutateladze, B. L., & Lawson, V. Z. (2017) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128717695224 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Adjudication Outcomes in Intimate and Non-Intimate Homicides
Auerhahn, K. (2007) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/1088767907304121 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Flavin, J. M. (2001) · Gender & Society · doi:10.1177/089124301015004007 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Court communities in local context: a multilevel analysis of felony sentencing in South Carolina
Hester, R., & Sevigny, E. L. (2014) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.2014.913494 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Racial Disparities in Juvenile Court Outcomes: A Test of the Liberation Hypothesis
Guevara, L., Boyd, L. M., Taylor, A. P., & Brown, R. A. (2011) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2011.594355 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Garland, B. E., Spohn, C., & Wodahl, E. J. (2008) · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationPunishing the Wicked: Examining the Correlates of Sentence Severity for Convicted Sex Offenders
Rydberg, J., Cassidy, M. B., & Socia, K. M. (2017) · Journal of Quantitative Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-017-9360-y · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Race, Ethnicity, Crime Type, and the Sentencing of Violent Felony Offenders
Lehmann, P. S. (2020) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128720902699 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Revisiting the Normal Crime and Liberation Hypotheses
Wu, J., & DeLone, M. A. (2012) · Criminal Justice Review · doi:10.1177/0734016811436336 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Race, Ethnicity, and Judicial Discretion
Nowacki, J. S. (2013) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128712470990 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Spohn, C., DeLone, M. A., & Spears, J. W. (1998) · Journal of Crime and Justice · doi:10.1080/0735648x.1998.9721603 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationDecision making in delinquency cases: The role of race and juveniles' admission/denial of the crime.
Ruback, R. B., & Vardaman, P. J. (1997) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1024866026608 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Lantz, B., Wenger, M. R., & Craig, C. J. (2021) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spab043 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Is the Process the Only Punishment?: Racial–Ethnic Disparities in Lower‐Level Courts
Petersen, N., & Omori, M. (2020) · Law & Policy · doi:10.1111/lapo.12140 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Ball, J. D., & Bostaph, L. G. (2009) · Women & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/08974450902791286 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The Influence of Defendant Race/Ethnicity and Police Body-Worn Cameras on Traffic Case Processing
Huff, J., White, M. D., & Padilla, K. E. (2023) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687211004696 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Testing the Evidentiary Value of Police Body-Worn Cameras in Misdemeanor Court
Todak, N. E., Gaub, J. E., & White, M. D. (2022) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287221120185 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Sentencing Female Drug Offenders: Reexamining Racial and Ethnic Disparities
Crow, M. S., & Kunselman, J. C. (2009) · Women & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/08974450903001511 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
The War on Drugs and the Gender Gap in Arrests: A Critical Perspective
Merolla, D. M. (2008) · Critical Sociology · doi:10.1177/0896920507085520 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Child Sexual Abuse Perpetrated by Women: Case Series and Review of the Literature
Curti, S. M., Lupariello, F., Coppo, E., Praznik, E. J., Racalbuto, S. S., & Vella, G. D. (2019) · Journal of Forensic Sciences · doi:10.1111/1556-4029.14033 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Justice by Other Means: Venue Sorting in Parole Revocation
Lin, J., Grattet, R., & Petersilia, J. (2012) · Law & Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9930.2012.00366.x · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Mitchell, O., & MacKenzie, D. L. (2004) · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Sex Disparities in Sentencing and Judges’ Beliefs: A Vignette Approach
Yan, S., & Lao, J. (2021) · Victims & Offenders · doi:10.1080/15564886.2021.1947427 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Alozie, N. O., & Johnston, C. W. (2000) · Justice System Journal · doi:10.1080/23277556.2000.10871288 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
An Examination of Racial and Ethnic Disparity in Prison Misconduct Punishment
Nur, A. V. (2023) · Journal of research in crime and delinquency · doi:10.1177/00224278231220613 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
The Impact of “Strikes” in Sentencing Decisions: Punishment for Only Some Habitual Offenders
Rodriguez, N. (2003) · Criminal Justice Policy Review · doi:10.1177/0887403402250918 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
- Authors
- Spohn, C., & Cederblom, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Nebraska at Omaha (US)
- ORCID
- Spohn, Cassia
- Venue
- Justice Quarterly
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 1991-09-01
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 305-327
- ISSN
- 0741-8825 (ISSN-L)
- 1745-9109
- OpenAlex
- W2013575550
- Cited by
- 197
- References
- 39
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 1.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Justice Quarterly (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
- Social Sciences › Education › Education Discipline and Inequality
- Keywords
- sentence length, interactive model, Detroit
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
