The DOI matches its Crossref record; 36 of the 36 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
AI companions for lonely individuals and the role of social presence
Open accessAbstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) companiosns (e.g., social machine agents, social robots) are becoming increasingly available. Considering that AI companions can be beneficial for individuals seeking companionships or relationships, the social and relational aspects of an AI companion are important to investigate. To understand people’s perceptions of an AI companion, this study examines the roles of social presence and warmth of an AI companion through an online experiment. Primary findings indicate that social presence of a disembodied AI companion fosters greater perceived usefulness of the AI companion and willingness to recommend the AI companion for lonely individuals. Collectively, the study highlights the importance of social presence for disembodied AI companions.
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In the citing paper
“Social presence gratifications were consistent with prior findings (Merrill Jr et al., 2022)”
From Intimate Strangers by Design: A Uses and Gratifications Analysis of AI Companionship (2026) · cites this paper as Merrill Jr et al., 2022
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“AI companions high in social presence and warmth are perceived as more useful and emotionally satisfying, especially for individuals experiencing isolation (Merrill Jr, Kim, and Collins 2022).”
From Toward an Ethic of Synthetic Relationality: Identity, Intimacy, and Risk in AI-Mediated Roleplay Environments (2025) · cites this paper as Merrill Jr, Kim, and Collins 2022
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The appeal of AI agents as companions lies in their consistency and perceived non-judgmentality [27, 40, 55]”
From Emotional Coregulation in Close Relationships with AI Agents: A Survey of ChatGPT and Replika Users (2025) · cites this paper as [40]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“For users with high loneliness, however, the same AI-provided need satisfaction may acquire substitutive value because the companion can offer a readily available sense of being heard, accepted, and emotionally recognized (De Freitas et al., 2024; Merrill et al., 2022).”
From When loneliness amplifies the risk of problematic emotional dependence: perceived anthropomorphism and basic psychological need satisfaction in AI companion use (2026) · cites this paper as Merrill et al., 2022
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Instead, they may approach them as emotionally safe, nonjudgmental, and continuously available substitutes for human connection (Rubin et al., 1985; Liu et al., 2025; Merrill et al., 2022).”
From When loneliness amplifies the risk of problematic emotional dependence: perceived anthropomorphism and basic psychological need satisfaction in AI companion use (2026) · cites this paper as Merrill et al., 2022
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Citations
Cites
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BackgroundPerceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology
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BackgroundUniversal dimensions of social cognition: warmth and competence
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BackgroundAt the Heart of It All: The Concept of Presence
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“Although technological features of embodiment can effectively facilitate social interactions with humans (Fong et al., 2003), it is unclear if this finding is true for AI designed for social purposes, such as AI companions.”
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Cited by
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Xie, Q., Mahomed, A. S. B., Mohamed, R., & Subramaniam, A. (2024) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v14-i5/21665
“…are telepresence, which pertains to users' perception of being physically immersed in a mediated environment, and social presence, which relates to users' perception of psychological intimacy with technology in terms of human contact, warmth and sensitivity (Merrill et al., 2022; Ou et al., 2014).”
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Relacje i postawy w rodzinie a korzystanie z nowoczesnych technologii i sztucznej inteligencji
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How Chatbot Support and Anthropomorphism Shape Loneliness in Young AdultsPreprint
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Dissolving Cognitive Dissonance: How Users Voluntarily Terminate Human-AI intimate relationship?Preprint
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The Manifestations of Presence in Chinese Young Women's Interactions With AI
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Zeng, J., Wu, M., & Lan, X. (2026) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3772318.3791580 · Cited by 1
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Only Time Will Tell: A Structured Survey of Longitudinal Studies on Social AI Companions
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Mysterious cohabitation with socially assistive robots among three underserved groups
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“This recommendation is consistent with prior research showing that conversational cues and social presence can increase user engagement and positive evaluations of AI systems (Merrill et al., 2022).”
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When the Magic Fades: Understanding Determinants of User Disengagement with AI Companions
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“…not only superficial members for strategic purposes such as achieving their own instrumental ends, but also as the deepest members: companions, significant-others, and friends that purportedly understand them better than their human counterparts (Merrill et al., 2022; Pataranutaporn et al., 2025).”
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Untitled work
Eom, D., Renner, J., & Chinn, S. (2026) · arXiv (preprint)
“The sense of social presence fostered by these systems has been shown to increase both their perceived usefulness and users' willingness to recommend them to socially isolated individuals (Merrill et al., 2022).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Merrill, K., Kim, J., & Collins, C.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- University of Central Florida (US)
- St Johns River State College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Merrill, Kelly
- Venue
- Communication Research Reports
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2022-03-12
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 93-103
- ISSN
- 0882-4096 (ISSN-L)
- 1746-4099
- OpenAlex
- W4220880657
- Cited by
- 142
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 46 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 3
- FWCI
- 21.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Communication Research Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › AI in Service Interactions
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Innovative Human-Technology Interaction
- Keywords
- AI companions, social presence, loneliness, social robots, perceived usefulness, recommendation intention, human-AI relationship
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