The DOI matches its Crossref record; 36 of the 36 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
AI companions for lonely individuals and the role of social presence
Open accessAbstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) companiosns (e.g., social machine agents, social robots) are becoming increasingly available. Considering that AI companions can be beneficial for individuals seeking companionships or relationships, the social and relational aspects of an AI companion are important to investigate. To understand people’s perceptions of an AI companion, this study examines the roles of social presence and warmth of an AI companion through an online experiment. Primary findings indicate that social presence of a disembodied AI companion fosters greater perceived usefulness of the AI companion and willingness to recommend the AI companion for lonely individuals. Collectively, the study highlights the importance of social presence for disembodied AI companions.
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In the citing paper
“Social presence gratifications were consistent with prior findings (Merrill Jr et al., 2022)”
From Intimate Strangers by Design: A Uses and Gratifications Analysis of AI Companionship (2026) · cites this paper as Merrill Jr et al., 2022
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“AI companions high in social presence and warmth are perceived as more useful and emotionally satisfying, especially for individuals experiencing isolation (Merrill Jr, Kim, and Collins 2022).”
From Toward an Ethic of Synthetic Relationality: Identity, Intimacy, and Risk in AI-Mediated Roleplay Environments (2025) · cites this paper as Merrill Jr, Kim, and Collins 2022
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The appeal of AI agents as companions lies in their consistency and perceived non-judgmentality [27, 40, 55]”
From Emotional Coregulation in Close Relationships with AI Agents: A Survey of ChatGPT and Replika Users (2025) · cites this paper as [40]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“For users with high loneliness, however, the same AI-provided need satisfaction may acquire substitutive value because the companion can offer a readily available sense of being heard, accepted, and emotionally recognized (De Freitas et al., 2024; Merrill et al., 2022).”
From When loneliness amplifies the risk of problematic emotional dependence: perceived anthropomorphism and basic psychological need satisfaction in AI companion use (2026) · cites this paper as Merrill et al., 2022
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“Instead, they may approach them as emotionally safe, nonjudgmental, and continuously available substitutes for human connection (Rubin et al., 1985; Liu et al., 2025; Merrill et al., 2022).”
From When loneliness amplifies the risk of problematic emotional dependence: perceived anthropomorphism and basic psychological need satisfaction in AI companion use (2026) · cites this paper as Merrill et al., 2022
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Citations
Cites
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 · Cited by 108,788 · cited 1×
“According to Hu and Bentler (1999), the recommended acceptable fit indices call for a non-significant chi-square test, CFI > .95, SRMR .08, and RMSEA .06.”
BackgroundPerceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology
Davis, F. D. (1989) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.2307/249008 · Cited by 68,483 · cited 3×
“Research using the original measure finds that it is positively associated with self-reported usage and user acceptance of a technology (Davis, 1989).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential(2013) · Cited by 44,563
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-3702 · Cited by 4,872
Computer-Mediated Communication: Impersonal, Interpersonal, and Hyperpersonal Interaction
WALTHER, J. B. (1996) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/009365096023001001 · Cited by 4,798 · cited 1×
“One potential explanation is due to people’s tendency to idealize or hyperpersonalize the other based on available cues in a mediated environment (Walther, 1996).”
BackgroundUniversal dimensions of social cognition: warmth and competence
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Glick, P. (2007) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.005 · Cited by 4,567 · cited 2×
“Warmth , or social warmth, is the feeling of intimacy and friendliness (Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodMachines and Mindlessness: Social Responses to Computers
Nass, C., & Moon, Y. (2000) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/0022-4537.00153 · Cited by 4,022 · cited 1×
“This is explained by humans failing to focus on the asocial characteristics of a computers (Nass & Moon, 2000).”
BackgroundAt the Heart of It All: The Concept of Presence
Lombard, M., & Ditton, T. B. (2006) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.1997.tb00072.x · Cited by 4,021 · cited 1×
“This definition is aligned with the idea of social richness, which is primarily concerned with sociable, warm, personal, or intimate perceptions of the other (Lombard & Ditton, 1997).”
BackgroundA survey of socially interactive robots
Fong, T., Nourbakhsh, I., & Dautenhahn, K. (2003) · Robotics and Autonomous Systems · doi:10.1016/s0921-8890(02)00372-x · Cited by 3,162 · cited 1×
“Although technological features of embodiment can effectively facilitate social interactions with humans (Fong et al., 2003), it is unclear if this finding is true for AI designed for social purposes, such as AI companions.”
BackgroundToward a More Robust Theory and Measure of Social Presence: Review and Suggested Criteria
Biocca, F. A., Harms, C., & Burgoon, J. K. (2003) · PRESENCE Virtual and Augmented Reality · doi:10.1162/105474603322761270 · Cited by 2,365
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Lombard M., 2009, Proceedings of the International Society for Presence Research Annual Conference
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Pentina, I., Xie, T., Hancock, T. D., & Bailey, A. A. (2023) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21853 · Cited by 214
AI Companions Reduce Loneliness
De Freitas, J., Oğuz-Uğuralp, Z., Uğuralp, A. K., & Puntoni, S. (2026) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucaf040 · Cited by 165
Kim, H., & Park, M. (2023) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103581 · Cited by 164
Kim, J., Merrill, K., Xu, K., & Kelly, S. E. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107383 · Cited by 147
Self-citationXie, Y., Liang, C., Zhou, P., & Jiang, L. (2024) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2023.103599 · Cited by 91
Metadata
- Authors
- Merrill, K., Kim, J., & Collins, C.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- University of Central Florida (US)
- St Johns River State College (US)
- Corresponding author
- Merrill, Kelly
- Venue
- Communication Research Reports
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2022-03-12
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 93-103
- ISSN
- 0882-4096 (ISSN-L)
- 1746-4099
- OpenAlex
- W4220880657
- Cited by
- 142
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 46 · 2024: 22 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 3
- FWCI
- 21.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Communication Research Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › AI in Service Interactions
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Innovative Human-Technology Interaction
- Keywords
- AI companions, social presence, loneliness, social robots, perceived usefulness, recommendation intention, human-AI relationship
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