Investigating AI Chatbot Dependence: Associations with Internet and Smartphone Dependence, Mental Health Outcomes, and the Moderating Role of Usage Purposes
Abstract
With the rapid rise of AI chatbots, concerns about AI chatbot dependence are increasing. Prior research has focused primarily on university students, leaving limited understanding of its broader psychological and behavioral implications. This study examined associations between AI chatbot dependence, internet and smartphone dependence, and mental health outcomes (depression, anxiety, and well-being) in a general adult sample (N = 1,146). Usage purposes were also examined as a moderator. AI chatbot dependence was moderately correlated with internet and smartphone dependence, but these associations were weaker than the internet–smartphone link. Positive associations were found between AI chatbot dependence and depression or anxiety, but not with mental well-being. Notably, usage purpose moderated the relationship between chatbot dependence and well-being: individuals using chatbots primarily for information retrieval reported higher well-being. While AI chatbot dependence is positively linked to traditional technology dependence, its association with mental health appears weaker, suggesting a different psychological profile.
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Zhang et al. found associations between LLM-CB dependence and depression, anxiety, and internet and smartphone dependence.
“Zhang et al. found associations between LLM-CB dependence and depression, anxiety, and internet and smartphone dependence110.”
From A scoping review on the mental health harms of LLM-based chatbots (2026) · cites this paper as [110]
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“The search string was validated using three pre-selected target articles47,84,110.”
From A scoping review on the mental health harms of LLM-based chatbots (2026) · cites this paper as [110]
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A scoping review on the mental health harms of LLM-based chatbots
Diel, A., Torous, J., Cuijpers, P., Kleesiek, J., Nensa, F., Weber, N., Faust, F., Lalgi, T. J., Mellis, F. S., Teufel, M., et al. (2026) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-026-03054-x · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Zhang et al. found associations between LLM-CB dependence and depression, anxiety, and internet and smartphone dependence 110 .”
- Authors
- Zhang, X., Li, H., Yin, M., Zhang, M., Li, Z., & Chen, Z.
- Affiliations
- Universidad de Granada (ES)
- Sichuan Agricultural University (CN)
- Shanghai University of Sport (CN)
- Jishou University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Zhang, Xing
- Venue
- International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2025-08-14
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 5592-5604
- ISSN
- 1044-7318 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7590
- OpenAlex
- W4413381959
- Cited by
- 21
- References
- 12
- Citations by year
- 2026: 19 · 2025: 2
- FWCI
- 36.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Technostress in Professional Settings
- Keywords
- internet addiction, smartphone addiction, mental health, depression, anxiety, well-being, information retrieval, general adult population, technology dependence
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