The Development and Validation of an Artificial Intelligence Chatbot Dependence Scale
Abstract
In recent years, a plethora of artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots have been developed and made available to the public. Consequently, an increasing number of individuals are integrating AI chatbots into their daily lives for various purposes. This trend has also raised concerns regarding AI chatbot dependence. However, a valid and reliable scale to assess AI chatbot dependence is yet to be developed. Therefore, this study was designed to develop and validate an AI chatbot dependence scale. We obtained initial items from previous publications and in-depth interviews. Subsequently, item analysis, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), reliability, and validity analyses were performed to validate the AI chatbot dependence scale. Seventeen items underwent item analysis and EFA, resulting in a single-factor model with eight items explaining 58.42% of the total variance. The CFA indicated that our AI chatbot dependence scale had acceptable model fitting indices, with standardized loadings ranging between 0.50 and 0.76. In addition, this scale exhibited good reliability and validity. Thus, the current AI chatbot dependence scale can effectively evaluate individuals' dependence on AI chatbots in their daily lives.
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Self-developed measures may focus on symptoms of behavioral addiction adapted to LLM-CBs (e.g., craving, withdrawal, tolerance, loss of interests, negative impact on other aspects of life), potentially confounding emotional and functional dependence.
“Self-developed measures may focus on symptoms of behavioral addiction adapted to LLM-CBs (e.g., craving, withdrawal, tolerance, loss of interests, negative impact on other aspects of life)103,106, potentially confounding emotional and functional dependence;”
From A scoping review on the mental health harms of LLM-based chatbots (2026) · cites this paper as [103]
Measures of AI dependence consist either of adaptations from other scales of behavioral addiction to technologies (e.g., social media, smartphone, or internet addiction) or self-developed measures.
“Measures of “AI dependence” consist either of adaptations from other scales of behavioral addiction to technologies (e.g., social media, smartphone, or internet addiction)100–102, or self-developed measures103–106.”
From A scoping review on the mental health harms of LLM-based chatbots (2026) · cites this paper as [103]
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- Authors
- Zhang, X., Yin, M., Zhang, M., Li, Z., & Li, H.
- Affiliations
- Universidad de Granada (ES)
- Shanghai University of Sport (CN)
- Jishou University (CN)
- Sichuan Agricultural University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Li, Hansen
- Venue
- Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2024-11-26
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 126-131
- ISSN
- 2152-2715 (ISSN-L)
- 2152-2723
- OpenAlex
- W4404724208
- Cited by
- 52
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 43 · 2025: 9
- FWCI
- 7.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › AI in Service Interactions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Keywords
- AI chatbots, scale development, scale validation, psychological dependence, psychometric properties
- MeSH terms
- Generative Artificial Intelligence, Adult, Artificial Intelligence, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Psychometrics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reproducibility of Results, Young Adult
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