The Role of Linguistic Diversity in the Prediction of Early Reading Comprehension: A Quantile Regression Approach
Open accessAbstract
Using classical and quantile regression analyses, we investigated whether predictor variables for early reading comprehension differed depending on language background and ability level in a mixed group of 161 monolingual (L1) and bilingual (L2) children in second grade (6–8 years). Although L2 readers scored lower on oral language skills and reading comprehension, the prediction of reading comprehension was similar for L1 and L2 readers. Classical regression identified decoding, vocabulary, and morphosyntactic knowledge as unique predictors with no interaction with language background. Quantile regression demonstrated that the prediction of reading comprehension differed across ability levels; decoding and morphosyntactic knowledge were consistently unique predictors, but vocabulary was uniquely related only for poor comprehenders and working memory only for good comprehenders. In both types of analysis, language background did not explain unique variance, indicating that individual differences in the predictor variables explained the L1–L2 performance gap in early reading comprehension across the ability range.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The finding that lower contextual inferencing in L2 readers is due to lower linguistic ability confirms findings on other reading skills and is in line with findings on adult L2 learners.
“This confirms findings on other reading skills (Lervåg & Aukrust, 2010;Raudszus et al., 2019;van den Bosch, Segers, & Verhoeven, 2018), and is in line with findings on adult L2 learners (Hamada, 2014;Mori & Nagy, 1999).”
From Use of morphological and contextual cues in children’s lexical inferencing in L1 and L2 (2021) · cites this paper as van den Bosch, Segers, & Verhoeven, 2018
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing
R Core Team (2000) · doi:10.32614/r.manuals · Cited by 355,706 · see citing works
Controlling the False Discovery Rate: A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing
Benjamini, Y., & Hochberg, Y. (1995) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series B: Statistical Methodology · doi:10.1111/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x · Cited by 109,482 · see citing works
Decoding, reading, and reading disability.
Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/074193258600700104 · Cited by 3,972 · see citing works
Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/bf00401799 · Cited by 2,956 · see citing works
Working memory and language: an overview
Baddeley, A. (2003) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0021-9924(03)00019-4 · Cited by 2,346 · see citing works
Reading Ability: Lexical Quality to Comprehension
Perfetti, C. (2007) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888430701530730 · Cited by 2,095 · see citing works
A gentle introduction to quantile regression for ecologists
Cade, B. S., & Noon, B. R. (2003) · Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment · doi:10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001[0412:agitqr]2.0.co;2 · Cited by 1,807 · see citing works
Stanovich, K. E. (1980) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.2307/747348 · Cited by 1,687 · see citing works
Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Bryant, P. (2004) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.31 · Cited by 1,496 · see citing works
Word Knowledge in a Theory of Reading Comprehension
Perfetti, C., & Stafura, J. (2014) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2013.827687 · Cited by 1,362 · see citing works
Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M. J., & Stevenson, J. (2004) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.5.665 · Cited by 1,086 · see citing works
Receptive vocabulary differences in monolingual and bilingual children
BIALYSTOK, E., LUK, G., PEETS, K. F., & YANG, S. (2010) · Bilingualism: Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s1366728909990423 · Cited by 1,012 · see citing works
Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage
Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2013) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2013.795574 · Cited by 859 · see citing works
Guide to using the Coloured Progressive Matrices.
Raven, J. (1958) · Cited by 671 · see citing works
Working memory development in monolingual and bilingual children
Morales, J., Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2012.09.002 · Cited by 547 · see citing works
Profiles of children with specific reading comprehension difficulties
Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. V. (2006) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709905x67610 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
The Connections Between Language and Reading Disabilities
(2005) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410612052 · Cited by 495 · see citing works
Language proficiency and reading ability in first‐ and second‐language learners
Droop, M., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2003) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1598/rrq.38.1.4 · Cited by 494 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Simple View of Reading: Is It Valid for Different Types of Alphabetic Orthographies?
Florit, E., & Cain, K. (2011) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9175-6 · Cited by 413 · see citing works
Nation, K., Cocksey, J., Taylor, J. S. H., & Bishop, D. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02254.x · Cited by 374 · see citing works
Lervåg, A., & Aukrust, V. G. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02185.x · Cited by 368 · see citing works
A Cognitive View of Reading Comprehension: Implications for Reading Difficulties
Kendeou, P., van den Broek, P., Helder, A., & Karlsson, J. (2014) · Learning Disabilities Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/ldrp.12025 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Lervåg, A. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0033890 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Components in Early Second Language Reading and Spelling
Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2000) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1207/s1532799xssr0404_4 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Self-citationThe benefits of being bilingual: Working memory in bilingual Turkish–Dutch children
Blom, E., Küntay, A. C., Messer, M. H., Verhagen, J., & Leseman, P. P. M. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2014.06.007 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition
Viezel, K., Zibulsky, J., Dumont, R., & Willis, J. O. (2014) · Encyclopedia of Special Education · doi:10.1002/9781118660584.ese1798 · Cited by 332 · see citing works
Working memory resources and children's reading comprehension
Seigneuric, A., Ehrlich, M., Oakhill, J. V., & Yuill, N. (2000) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1023/a:1008088230941 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Levels of Comprehension Monitoring and Working Memory in Good and Poor Comprehenders
Oakhill, J. V., Hartt, J., & Samols, D. (2005) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-005-3355-z · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Bilingualism and working memory capacity: A comprehensive meta-analysis
Grundy, J. G., & Timmer, K. (2016) · Second language Research · doi:10.1177/0267658316678286 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Geva, E., & Farnia, F. (2011) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-011-9333-8 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Applied Quantitative Analysis in Education and the Social Sciences
(2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203108550 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
The effects of orthographic depth on learning to read alphabetic, syllabic, and logographic scripts
Ellis, N. C., NATSUME, M., STAVROPOULOU, K., Hoxhallari, L., van Daal, V. H. P., POLYZOE, N., TSIPA, M., & PETALAS, M. (2004) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1598/rrq.39.4.5 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Mancilla‐Martinez, J., & Lesaux, N. K. (2010) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019135 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Lindenberger, U., & Pötter, U. (1998) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.3.2.218 · Cited by 231 · see citing works
The simple view of second language reading throughout the primary grades
Verhoeven, L. T. W., & van Leeuwe, J. (2011) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-011-9346-3 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopmental Changes in Reading and Reading Disabilities
Catts, H. W., Hogan, T. P., & Adlof, S. M. (2005) · doi:10.4324/9781410612052-9 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Lesaux, N. K., Lipka, O., & Siegel, L. (2006) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-005-4713-6 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Geva, E., & Zadeh, Z. Y. (2005) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1207/s1532799xssr1001_3 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Extra, G., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (1999) · Mouton eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783110807820 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Self-citationBabayiğit, S. (2012) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9817.2012.01538.x · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Quantile Regression in the Study of Developmental Sciences
Petscher, Y., & Logan, J. A. R. (2013) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12190 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Reading Development and Difficulties
(2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-26550-2 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Modeling the Growth of Word-Decoding Skills: Evidence From Dutch
Verhoeven, L. T. W., & van Leeuwe, J. (2009) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888430902851356 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-citationReading Development and Difficulties
Rispens, J. (2011) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1111/j.1460-6984.2011.00001.x · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Pressure points in reading comprehension: A quantile multiple regression analysis.
Logan, J. (2016) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000150 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Mancilla‐Martinez, J., & Lesaux, N. K. (2017) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2017.1320402 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Beyond the simple view of early first and second language reading: The impact of lexical quality
Verhoeven, L. T. W., Voeten, M., & Vermeer, A. (2018) · Journal of Neurolinguistics · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroling.2018.03.002 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Self-citationDimensionality of Reading Skills With Elementary-School-Age Children
Lonigan, C. J., & Burgess, S. R. (2017) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2017.1285918 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Tighe, E. L., & Schatschneider, C. W. (2014) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219414556771 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The Nature of Developmental Dyslexia in a Transparent Orthography
Verhoeven, L. T. W., & Keuning, J. (2017) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2017.1317780 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationPredicting word reading ability: a quantile regression study
McIlraith, A. L. (2016) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/1467-9817.12089 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Online processing of causal relations in beginning first and second language readers
van den Bosch, L. J., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.11.007 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citationHua, A. N., & Keenan, J. M. (2017) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2017.1280675 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Reynolds, M. C. (1992) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 55 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Cito, B. V. (2014). Begrijpend lezen 3.0 voor groep 4: M4-toets [Reading Comprehension 3.0 for second grade: M4 test]. Arnhem, the Netherlands: Cito B.V. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd edition). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
- BF00401799 · DOI · Paper page
- Kort, W., Schittekatte, M., Dekker, P. H., Verhaeghe, P., Compaan, E. L., Bosmans, M., & Vermeir, G. (2005). WISC- III NL. Handleiding en Verantwoording. In D. Wechsler (Ed.), [Manual and Justification]. London, UK: The Psychological Corporation.
- Verhoeven, L. T. W., Keuning, J., Horsels, L., & Van Boxtel, H. (2013). Testinstrumentarium Taalontwikkelingsstoornissen T-TOS. In Cito B.V. (Ed.), [Set of Instruments Developmental Language Disorder]. Arnhem, the Netherlands: Cito.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Wolf, M. C., Muijselaar, M. M. L., Boonstra, A. M., & de Bree, E. H. (2018) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-018-9924-8 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Hessel, A., Nation, K., & Murphy, V. A. (2020) · Scientific Studies of Reading · doi:10.1080/10888438.2020.1740227 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
First and second language vocabulary affect early second language reading comprehension development
van den Bosch, L. J., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2020) · Journal of Research in Reading · doi:10.1111/1467-9817.12304 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationSumarni, B., Bhatta, D. D., & Kho, S. F.-C. (2022) · Journal of Language and Literature Studies · doi:10.36312/jolls.v2i1.710 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Use of morphological and contextual cues in children’s lexical inferencing in L1 and L2
Raudszus, H., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2021) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-021-10122-z · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationEnhancing Vocabulary Mastery through Applying Visual Auditory Kinesthetic (VAK): A Classroom Action
Hidayatullah, H., Munir, S., & Tawali, T. (2022) · Journal of Language and Literature Studies · doi:10.36312/jolls.v2i1.721 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Ardasheva, Y., Crosson, A. C., Carbonneau, K. J., & French, B. F. (2021) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.3039 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Chauhan, P., Akıner, M. E., Shaw, R., & Sain, K. (2024) · Artificial Intelligence in Geosciences · doi:10.1016/j.aiig.2024.100069 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Tolchinsky, L., Aparici, M., & Vilar, H. (2021) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2021.1923643 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
THE EFFECT OF LEARNING CONTEXT ON L2 LISTENING DEVELOPMENT
Yu, X., Janse, E., & Schoonen, R. (2020) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263120000534 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Extrema of Japanese Literacy: Beyond the Bounds of Average Reading
Hemelstrand, S., & Inoue, T. (2024) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.536 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Siregar, N. R., Ilham, M., & Mansyur, M. (2020) · JPI (Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia) · doi:10.23887/jpi-undiksha.v9i1.23101 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Reading Comprehension and Multilingual Students
Bruggink, M., Swart, N. M., van der Lee, A., & Segers, E. (2022) · IEA research for educators · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-95266-2_4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationPhonological working memory and linguistic processing speed in inferential reading comprehension
Candal, D. B., & de Ávila, C. R. B. (2025) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1186/s41155-025-00356-z · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Rodríguez, C., Barriga, C. A., Ferreira, R. A., & González, S. M. (2025) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-025-10722-z · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Assessing children’s incremental word knowledge in the upper primary grades
Monster, I., Tellings, A., Burk, W. J., Keuning, J., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L. (2020) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/0265532220961541 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationEarly Reading and Writing by Using the Manakok Game as a Manifestation of Basic Literacy
Chandra, C., Rahman, R., Hartati, N., Kharisma, A., Fauziah, M., & Wismaliya, R. (2019) · International Conference on Local Wisdom (INCOLWIS) · doi:10.4108/eai.29-8-2019.2288919 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Sanabria, A. M., Pratt, A., Alonzo, C. N., Gallagher, J. F., & Restrepo, M. A. (2025) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/2025_lshss-24-00090 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Chauhan, P., Akıner, M. E., & Sain, K. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-2839509/v1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Quantile regression: Applicability for health, sport, and performance data
Stanley, C. T. (2020) · Performance Enhancement & Health · doi:10.1016/j.peh.2020.100168
Hessel, A., Nation, K., & Murphy, V. A. (2019) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/qf92k
The Nature of Reading in a Second Language
Sadeghi, K. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-84470-7_2
- Authors
- van den Bosch, L. J., Segers, E., & Verhoeven, L.
- Affiliations
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- Venue
- Scientific Studies of Reading
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2018-09-05
- Volume
- 23
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 203-219
- ISSN
- 1088-8438 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-799X
- OpenAlex
- W2890168005
- Cited by
- 22
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 6.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0 (vor)
- Locations
- Scientific Studies of Reading (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Keywords
- bilingual children, monolingual children, language background, decoding, vocabulary knowledge, morphosyntactic knowledge, working memory, speaking skills, second grade, quantile regression, ability level differences
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
