Social presence enhances student performance in an online geology course but depends on instructor facilitation
Abstract
Online courses can feel isolating and sometimes lack human connections that can motivate students. We developed a fully online geoscience course to build a ‘Community of Inquiry’ with attention to cognitive, social, and teaching presences. We ran the course using nearly identical materials for 8 semesters (recorded video lectures, labs, assignments, and assessments). Slight variations in instructor behavior caused profound impacts on student performance, creating a natural experiment to isolate factors that influence student performance. During semesters that instructors sent fewer course announcements and provided less feedback to students, about 50% more students earned D’s and F’s than semesters with frequent interactions. These performance drops correlated with drops in key indicators of social presence such as the number of students who thought the instructor knew their name. We developed an instrument to quantify student perceptions about the strength of student-student and instructor-student connections. An exploratory principal component analysis revealed two underlying constructs that we interpret as social presence and cognitive presence. We found that students with the highest reported social and cognitive presences had overall course grades an average of 12 points higher (out of 100) than those with the lowest presences, when all other factors were equal. Social and cognitive presence had relatively equal effects, but each explained more than 3 times the variance…
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Teacher engagement via announcements, feedback, and other interactions in an online geology course had a pertinent difference in the number of failing students.
“In a study of an online geology course that utilized the same instructional design and material, the teacher's engagement via announcements, feedback, and other interactions had a pertinent difference in the number of failing students (d'Alessio et al., 2019).”
From Online or Face to Face? The Modality of a Learning Strategies Course and Impacts on Grades, GPA, Retention and Persistence for Developmental Students (2026) · cites this paper as d'Alessio et al., 2019
Cites
Richardson, J. C., & Swan, K. P. (2003) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v7i1.1864 · Cited by 1,689 · see citing works
Collaborative Learning Enhances Critical Thinking
Gokhale, A. A. (1995) · Journal of Technology Education · doi:10.21061/jte.v7i1.a.2 · Cited by 1,688 · see citing works
Researching the community of inquiry framework: Review, issues, and future directions
Garrison, D. R., & Arbaugh, J. B. (2007) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2007.04.001 · Cited by 1,653 · see citing works
Quarterly Review of Distance Education
Clark, R. E. (2002) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/bf03651763 · Cited by 1,631 · see citing works
BEYOND STUDENT PERCEPTIONS: ISSUES OF INTERACTION, PRESENCE, AND PERFORMANCE IN AN ONLINE COURSE
Picciano, A. G. (2002) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v6i1.1870 · Cited by 1,313 · see citing works
Arbaugh, J. B., Cleveland-Innes, M., Diaz, S. R., Garrison, D. R., Ice, P., Richardson, J. C., & Swan, K. P. (2008) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2008.06.003 · Cited by 1,065 · see citing works
Cognitive Perspectives on Peer Learning
O’Donnell, A. M., & King, A. (2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410603715 · Cited by 871 · see citing works
Xu, D., & Jaggars, S. S. (2014) · The Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.1080/00221546.2014.11777343 · Cited by 568 · see citing works
Jackson, D. R. (2023) · doi:10.4135/9781071840801.n92 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
Communities of Inquiry in Online Learning
Garrison, D. R. (2009) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/978-1-60566-198-8.ch052 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
An instructional strategy framework for online learning environments
Johnson, S. D., & Aragon, S. R. (2003) · New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education · doi:10.1002/ace.117 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
Hiltz, S. R., Coppola, N. W., Rotter, N. G., Turoff, M., & Benbunan‐Fich, R. (2000) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v4i2.1904 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Wang, M. C. (1994) · Educational leadership · Cited by 254 · see citing works
AN EMPIRICAL VERIFICATION OF THE COMMUNITY OF INQUIRY FRAMEWORK
Arbaugh, B. (2007) · Online Learning · doi:10.24059/olj.v11i1.1738 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Jaggars, S., & Bailey, T. R. (2010) · Columbia University · doi:10.7916/d85m63sm · Cited by 222 · see citing works
The Online Delivery of Psychology Courses: Attrition, Performance, and Evaluation
Waschull, S. B. (2001) · Teaching of Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15328023top2802_15 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
“Choose Your Classmates, Your GPA Is at Stake!”
Gašević, D., Zouaq, A., & Janzen, R. (2013) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764213479362 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Tsai, F.-H., Tsai, C., & Lin, K. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.013 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Fritz, J. (2010) · The Internet and Higher Education · doi:10.1016/j.iheduc.2010.07.007 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Interaction Processes and Student Outcomes in Cooperative Learning Groups
Battistich, V. A., Solomon, D., & Delucchi, K. (1993) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/461748 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Hooper, S., & Hannafin, M. J. (1991) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02296436 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Building a Social and Motivational Framework for Understanding Satisfaction in Online Learning
Lin, Y., Lin, G.-Y., & Laffey, J. M. (2008) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.2190/ec.38.1.a · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Distance Education: Why Are the Attrition Rates so High?
Moody, J. D. (2004) · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Dalton, D. W., Hannafin, M. J., & Hooper, S. (1989) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02298287 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Street, H. D. (2010) · Online journal of distance learning administration · Cited by 94 · see citing works
The Effect of Time Spent Online on Student Achievement in Online Economics and Finance Courses
Calafiore, P., & Damianov, D. S. (2011) · The Journal of Economic Education · doi:10.1080/00220485.2011.581934 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Student Preferences in Using Online Learning Resources
Brown, B. W., & Liedholm, C. E. (2004) · Social Science Computer Review · doi:10.1177/0894439304268529 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Effects of cooperative learning on second graders’ learning from text
Law, Y. (2008) · Educational Psychology · doi:10.1080/01443410701880159 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Werhner, M. J. (2010) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.5408/1.3559697 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Laboratory Earth: A Model of Online K-12 Teacher Coursework
Gosselin, D. C., Thomas, J., Redmond, A., Larson-Miller, C. S., Yendra, S., Bonnstetter, R. J., & Slater, T. F. (2010) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.5408/1.3534859 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Korkofingas, C., & Macri, J. (2013) · Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice · doi:10.53761/1.10.2.2 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
d'Alessio, M. A., Schwartz, J., Pedone, V. A., Pavia, J., Fleck, J., & Lundquist, L. L. (2019) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.1080/10899995.2019.1578467 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationOnline Courses: An analysis of student satisfaction
Franza, T., Williams, D. M., Morote, E., & Cunningham, J. (2009) · Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
A practical guide to virtual debriefings: communities of inquiry perspective
Cheng, A., Kolbe, M., Grant, V. J., Eller, S., Hales, R. L., Symon, B., Griswold, S., & Eppich, W. (2020) · Advances in Simulation · doi:10.1186/s41077-020-00141-1 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Kwon, S., Kim, W., Bae, C., Cho, M., Lee, S.-H., & Dreamson, N. (2021) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-021-00304-8 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Magana, A. J., Karabiyik, T., Thomas, P. J., Jaiswal, A., Perera, V., & Dworkin, J. B. (2022) · Journal of Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/jee.20450 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Donham, C., Barron, H. A., Alkhouri, J. S., Kumarath, M. C., Alejandro, W., Menke, E., & Kranzfelder, P. (2022) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-022-00335-1 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Dunmoye, I. D., Rukangu, A., May, D., & Das, R. P. (2024) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2024.100054 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Empowering active learning: A social annotation tool for improving student engagement
Cui, T., & Wang, J. J. (2023) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13403 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Mutezo, A. T., & Maré, S. (2023) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2023.2171176 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Using an engagement lens to model active learning in the geosciences
LaDue, N., McNeal, P., Ryker, K. D., John, K. S., & Kraft, K. J. V. D. H. (2021) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.1080/10899995.2021.1913715 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Li, L. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s388317 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Factors that influence cognitive presence: A scoping review
Maranna, S., Willison, J., Joksimovíc, S., Parange, N., & Costabile, M. (2022) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.7878 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Li, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.950687 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Measuring social presence in online learning: A validation study
Alsayer, A. A., & Lowenthal, P. R. (2024) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-12972-w · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Kirsch, C., & Vaıoulı, P. (2023) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100433 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Kanno, M. (2020) · Journal of Education, Innovation, and Communication. · doi:10.34097/jeicom_sp_june2020_4 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
d'Alessio, M. A., Schwartz, J., Pedone, V. A., Pavia, J., Fleck, J., & Lundquist, L. L. (2019) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.1080/10899995.2019.1578467 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationReeves, J. L., Gunter, G. A., Braga, J. D. C. F., & Racilan, M. (2022) · DELTA Documentação de Estudos em Lingüística Teórica e Aplicada · doi:10.1590/1678-460x202238252396 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Kourkouli, K. (2024) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2024.104630 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The evaluation of problem-solving oriented e-module in learning computer-based subject
Lah, N. H. C., Hashim, M., Harun, J., & Abdullah, Y. (2023) · International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE) · doi:10.11591/ijere.v13i1.25486 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
ARIA: Toward Human-Centered Embodied AI Instruction in Real-Time Augmented Reality
Mohammed, A. M., McCarthy, M., Neumann, C., Bruder, G., Reiners, D., & Cruz‐Neira, C. (2026) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI) · doi:10.1145/3742413.3789163 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Investigating assessment types in an online climate change class: moderating and mediating effects
Millet, A. L., Dinç, E., & Bralower, T. J. (2024) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-024-10392-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Hachmi, A., Moussaouy, A. E., & Ouariach, A. (2025) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2025.2492273 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Teaching Geology in Higher Education Institutions under COVID-19 Conditions
Γιωτόπουλος, Γ., Papoulis, D., Koukouvelas, I., Skopeliti, I., Εconomou, P., & Gianni, E. (2023) · Geosciences · doi:10.3390/geosciences13040096 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Power of Presence in Virtual Teaching and Practice Environments
Crooks, E. A., & Wingo, N. P. (2022) · Nursing Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.cnur.2022.07.002 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Introductory geoscience courses and STEM education research
Egger, A. E. (2019) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.1080/10899995.2019.1633876 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
(2020) · Journal of Education, Innovation, and Communication. · doi:10.34097/jeicom_sp_june2020 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Humanizing geoscience education research through participant-driven visual representation
Boyd, E. A., Lazar, K. B., & Voigt, M. (2023) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.1080/10899995.2023.2193551 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bitting, K. S., Ryker, K. D., & Teasdale, R. (2024) · Journal of Geoscience Education · doi:10.1080/10899995.2024.2359318 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Community of Inquiry Framework, Online and Blended Learning, and the i2Flex Classroom Model
Swan, K. P. (2021) · Advances in mobile and distance learning book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7760-8.ch001 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hawkins, E. M., & Vandervelde, S. D. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3712596 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Choi, A., Murtha, T. D., Morrison, L. J., & Talwalkar, J. S. (2025) · Journal of Medical Education and Curricular Development · doi:10.1177/23821205241311961 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kramer, S. N. (2021) · UST Research Online (University of St. Thomas - Minnesota)
Stein, R., Munson, J., & Sheldon, N. D. (2022) · Interdisciplinary Journal of Environmental and Science Education · doi:10.21601/ijese/12036
FEATURES OF MODELING THE PROCESS OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING OF FUTURE SPECIALISTS IN PHYSICAL THERAPY
Kopochynska, Y. V., Dmitriieva, N. S., & Glynyana, O. O. (2022) · Innovate Pedagogy · doi:10.32843/2663-6085/2022/43/1.22
The correlation between teacher support and primary school students’ life and school satisfaction
Vidić, T., Ožanić, M. S., & Hendal d. o. o., C. (2023) · Journal of Educational Sciences & Psychology · doi:10.51865/jesp.2023.2.07
Introducing a Model for Humanizing Online Course Modules
Hikmatullah, N. (2024) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-4131-5.ch003
Donham, C., Barron, H. A., Alkhouri, J. S., Changaran Kumarath, M., Alejandro, W., Menke, E., & Kranzfelder, P. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.19204514
- Authors
- d’Alessio, M. A., Lundquist, L. L., Schwartz, J. J., Pedone, V., Pavia, J., & Fleck, J.
- Affiliations
- Department of Geological Sciences, California State University Northridge, Northridge, California 91330-8266
- California State University, Northridge (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Geoscience Education
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2019-05-02
- Volume
- 67
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 222-236
- ISSN
- 1089-9995 (ISSN-L)
- 2158-1428
- OpenAlex
- W2943199802
- Cited by
- 39
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 2
- FWCI
- 14.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Geoscience Education (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Science Applications › Online Learning and Analytics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Communication in Education and Healthcare
- Keywords
- social presence, cognitive presence, community of inquiry, instructor facilitation, student performance, instructor feedback, student-student interaction, teacher-student relationship, student perceptions, online learning, course announcements
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review