Redefining teaching, re-imagining teacher education

“At this point, we do not yet have a welldeveloped framework for parsing teaching (c.f. Grossman & McDonald, 2008).”

“Similarly, when asked to prepare teachers more effectively to work with English language learners a typical program response is to add a course (Lucas, Villegas, & Freeson‐Gonzalez, 2008 ).”

“…some teacher educators who have attempted to ensure that teachers can advance practices in ambitious directions, so that all students, particularly those who were previously underserved by schools, can experience opportunities for rich learning (e.g., Ball & Forzani, 2009; Grossman et al., 2009).”

“The term enactment as a proxy for adding attention to practice to more academic work in learning teaching comes up again in a current critique by Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009), who argue that “taking clinical practice seriously will require us to add pedagogies of enactment to our…”

“…digital technology, it may be of limited value unless it is one stage within approximations of practice, where students are purposefully sca ff olded from using digital tools to being able to apply tools within their teaching practice in a classroom context (Grossman, Hammerness, & McDonald, 2009).”

“…we reviewed the position papers and general conceptual studies on teacher mentoring approaches which do not specifically differentiate between preservice, induction, and inservice mentoring approaches (Cochran-Smith, 1991; FeimanNemser & Parker, 1993; Grossman et al., 2009; Wang & Odell, 2002).”

“Drawing on Grossman and colleagues’ work (Grossman et al., 2009; Hatch & Grossman, 2009), we sought to understand how these particular moves worked together to define a particular practice—one that takes place consistently across discussions, is a practice that promotes both teacher and facilitator learning, and becom…”

“Common to these routines is that they occur with frequency, are central to the practice of teaching, facilitate the learning of all students, and are learnable by novices in the laboratory-type settings in teacher preparation programs (Ball et al., 2009; Grossman et al., 2009).”

“tions, analyzing students’ correct and incorrect solution strategies, and eliciting further thinking (Grossman et al. 2009; Kazemi and Hubbard 2008).”

“Drawing on Grossman et al. (2009), the goal is to enable teachers to identify the core domains of college and career-based reform models and implement high leverage practices that can support the development and implementation of 21st Century curricula.”

“Gradually increasing the level of complexity of knowledge and tasks over time while demanding increasingly independent performance provides opportunities for teachers to achieve deep levels of knowledge integration without being overwhelmed by the complexity of real teaching environments (Grossman et al., 2009).”

“Fundamental to this approach are pedagogies of enactment , in which discrete parts of complex practices are role-played, evaluated and refined based on feedback (Grossman et al. 2009).”

“Grossman et al. (2009) argue that much of teacher preparation focuses on observing and reflecting on teaching, with less emphasis on preparing teachers to do the work of teaching.”

“Ball and Forzani (2009), for example, detailed several “high leverage” teaching practices; Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009) focused on “core” practices; and Kazemi, Franke, and Lampert (2009) described “high quality” “instructional strategies.””

“Approximations of practice include opportunities to rehearse and enact discrete components of complex practice in settings of reduced complexity (Grossman et al., 2009).”

“…a valuable concept, several scholars from this stream of research now argue for using the perspective of teacher tasks, instead of teacher knowledge, to educate and assess (student) teachers, because tasks are more closely connected to teaching practice (Grossman, 2018; Grossman et al., 2009).”

“…teach novice teachers how to enact core practices, they have been defined in the literature as those practices that are essential to successful classroom teaching and student learning, and are possible for novices to learn and enact in their teaching (Grossman et al., 2009; McDonald et al., 2013).”

“Through this novel approach, the study offers possibilities to structure and understand the continuous importance and potential of reflection for teachers’ professional development during and after teacher education (cf. Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald 2009).”

“In conclusion, we see the turn toward practice—the emphasis on placing teaching at the center of learning to teach—as a promising shift in teacher education (Ball & Forzani, 2009; Grossman et al., 2009; Zeichner, 2012).”

“…et al., 2020; McCullough et al., 2021; Tschannen-Moran & McMaster, 2009) or more global approaches such as placing core teaching practices and opportunities for practice at the heart of pre-service teacher education (Grossman, Hammerness, & McDonald, 2009; Michigan Department of Education, n.d.).”

“Both cases, located in the United States, are exemplary precursors to practice-based teacher preparation as explicated by Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2008).”

“The program therefore represented a practical pedagogy which, as suggested by Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009): [is] organized around a core set of practices in which knowledge, skill, and professional identity are developed in the process of learning to practice during professional…”

“Facing the challenge of identifying and selecting core practices, Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009) identified common characteristics of core practices that different researchers mention: 1) practices that occur with high frequency in teaching, 2) practices that novices can enact in…”

“One explanation could be that teaching is a highly complex activity that draws on many kinds of knowledge and the teaching job is quite task demanding (Grossman et al. 2009; Watt and Richardson 2012).”

“Methods instruction in both courses followed a pedagogical framework proposed by Grossman et al. (2009), in which novices were introduced to instructional practices through multiple representations, these practices were decomposed into their constituent parts, and novices were given multiple…”

“As Grossman et al. (2009) noted, programs of teacher education, or robust strands within a program, need to be organized around a set of frameworks and practices.”

“Parallel work led by Grossman and Ball focuses on breaking down, or decomposing (Grossman et al., 2009), the complex act of teaching into constituent parts that can be closely examined.”

“However, in this arena, an emphasis upon helping teachers develop and enact particular practices emerges consistently as a core theme (Thompson et al., 2010; Sleep, Boerst, & Ball, 2007; Lampert, 2005; see also Grossman et al., 2009).”

“Many research pieces in pedagogy (Gallagher, 1994; Grossman et al., 2009, for example) have studied the teaching–learning processes and analyzed which strategic teaching actions to implement according to the concrete training situations the particular characteristics of the students.”

“Most novice teachers are unaware of the importance and complexities of planning because the work of planning was invisible to them as students (Grossman et al., 2009).”

“Grossman et al. (2009) put this very eloquently, when advocating that high-leverage practices become ‘‘the warp Learning to provide instructional explanations”

“Grossman et al. (2009) commented that an ‘emphasis on knowledge has obscured the importance of other aspects of teaching, including the need for skill in orchestrating instructional activities, and the relational work involved in creating classroom communities’ (p. 273).”

“…large-scale reform of teacher preparation—“away from a curriculum focused on what teachers need to know to a curriculum organized around core practices, in which knowledge, skill, and professional identity are developed in the process of learning to practice” (Grossman et al., 2009, p. 274).”

“We used the Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009) framework of sharing representations, decompositions and approximations of practice to help teachers learn to enact the practices embedded in each investigation.”

“Grossman et al. (2009) describe the characteristics of high-leverage practices in terms of what PSTs should begin to enact in teacher education programs,”

“…teacher training, which is often considered as deprofessionalisation of teacher education), and on the other hand, a more academic research-based teacher education (Cochran-Smith 2005; Clandinin, Downey, and Huber 2009; Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald 2009; Murray, Czerniawski, and Barber 2011).”

“One goal of this type of work is to help preservice teachers to learn how to efficiently enact specified practices so that they can use them with regularity in their classrooms (Grossman et al., 2009).”

“Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009) state that although scholars of teacher education periodically revise their teacher education programmes, the ideal of integrating theory and practice remains a challenge.”

“…universities expected to employ more classroom teachers in their programmes with, for example, the involvement of in-service teachers as adjunct lecturers (Allen, Butler-Mader, and Smith 2010) and/or university teachers working ‘in-residence’ in schools (Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald 2009).”

“…in both instances, was mindful of encouraging constructive and progressive enquiry (Cooper and Stewart 2009) by investing in high leverage practices that specifically related to ECT needs as part of an entitlement core provision delivered by the HEI and school in partnership (Grossman et al. 2009).”

“Through our findings, we have documented the various ways we incorporated particular representations, approximations, and decompositions of practice (Grossman et al., 2009) in relation to the elements of compassionate, critical, justice-oriented teacher education we identified, as well as the many…”

“Current ITE does not succeed in sufficiently integrating the four components and many students perceive their ITE to be fragmented with little contact between the people they meet in the various components (Darling-Hammond 2006, 2012; Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald 2009).”

“To address these shortcomings, scholars in a range of disciplines have begun to identify essential practices that are intended to provide a clear focus for teacher preparation (Ball & Forzani, 2009; Grossman et al., 2009; Windschitl et al., 2012).”

“As Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009) note, “Having opportunities to rehearse such responses ahead of time, in environments that are less complex than classrooms, can help novices hone their practice and prepare them for when they will need to respond in the moment” (p. 279).”

“Reforms commonly centre on efforts to deepen the interplay between university course work and school experience and overcome the ‘balkanisation of the curriculum of teacher education’ (Grossman et al. 2009, 286).”

“Similarly, Gutstein and colleagues (1997) described how teachers at a school in a predominantly Mexican immigrant/ Mexican American community connected a focus on student reasoning (CMT) with knowledge of students’ language and culture (CFoK).”