The DOI matches its Crossref record; 4 of the 4 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Redefining teaching, re-imagining teacher education
Abstract
In this article, the authors provide an argument for future directions for teacher education, based on a re‐conceptualization of teaching. The authors argue that teacher educators need to attend to the clinical aspects of practice and experiment with how best to help novices develop skilled practice. Taking clinical practice seriously will require teacher educators to add pedagogies of enactment to an existing repertoire of pedagogies of reflection and investigation. In order to make this shift, the authors contend that teacher educators will need to undo a number of historical divisions that underlie the education of teachers. These include the curricular divide between foundations and methods courses, as well as the separation between the university and schools. Finally, the authors propose that teacher education be organized around a core set of practices in which knowledge, skill, and professional identity are developed in the process of learning to practice during professional education.
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“This pattern is consistent with research describing early teacher learning as uneven and non-linear (Grossman et al., 2009).”
From Reducing classification risk in developmental performance assessment using fuzzy logic: evidence from preservice mathematics teacher education (2026) · cites this paper as Grossman et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“While such systems appear objective, they frequently obscure uneven development across planning and enactment, particularly during early stages of training (Darling-Hammond and Snyder, 2000; Grossman et al., 2009).”
From Reducing classification risk in developmental performance assessment using fuzzy logic: evidence from preservice mathematics teacher education (2026) · cites this paper as Grossman et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“The present findings suggest that FLA offers stronger warrants for developmental and classificatory decisions because it aligns more closely with the multidimensional and uneven nature of preservice teacher learning (Ball et al., 2008; Grossman et al., 2009).”
From Reducing classification risk in developmental performance assessment using fuzzy logic: evidence from preservice mathematics teacher education (2026) · cites this paper as Grossman et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“Mathematics teacher education programs often rely on composite scores derived from lesson plans, microteaching, and examinations to make consequential decisions about progression and readiness to teach.”
From Reducing classification risk in developmental performance assessment using fuzzy logic: evidence from preservice mathematics teacher education (2026) · cites this paper as Grossman et al., 2009
In the citing paper
“specificity and developmental framing of feedback are associated with greater learning gains (DarlingHammond et al., 2020; Darling-Hammond and Snyder, 2000; Grossman et al., 2009).”
From Reducing classification risk in developmental performance assessment using fuzzy logic: evidence from preservice mathematics teacher education (2026) · cites this paper as Grossman et al., 2009
Citations
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“Decomposition of practice ‘‘involves breaking down practice into its constituent parts for the purposes of teaching and learning’’ (Grossman et al. 2009a, p. 2058).”
BackgroundInfluentialJackson, A., & Burch, J. (2016) · Professional Development in Education · doi:10.1080/19415257.2015.1052090 · Cited by 37
“To do this they ‘decompose’ (Grossman et al. 2009a) the teaching, meaning that complex teaching strategies are broken down into their constituent parts to enable student-teachers to see the strategies involved and they then receive intensive coaching and other forms of training ready to enact the…”
BackgroundInfluentialFischer, F., Bauer, E., Seidel, T., Schmidmaier, R., Radkowitsch, A., Neuhaus, B. J., Hofer, S. I., Sommerhoff, D., Ufer, S., Kühn, J., et al. (2022) · Information and Learning Sciences · doi:10.1108/ils-06-2022-0076 · Cited by 47
Simulation training-a boost for pre-service teachers’ efficacy beliefs
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“Training with fellow teacher students is difficult when other students play the role of pupils [15,24].”
InfluentialExploring the foci and depth of coach-teacher interactions during modeled lessons
Saclarides, E., & Munson, J. (2021) · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2021.103418 · Cited by 36
Black womanist teachers’ political clarity in theory and practice
de Royston, M. M. (2020) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405841.2020.1773186 · Cited by 36
Santagata, R., Yeh, C., & Mercado, J. (2018) · doi:10.1080/10508406.2018.1441030 · Cited by 36
“…divide we discussed above, scholars advocate for an organization of teacher preparation around a core set of practices that are grounded in research-based theories of how students learn (Ball and Forzani, 2009; Ball, Sleep, Boerst, & Bass, 2009; Grossman et al., 2009; McDonald et al., 2013).”
Background(Re)turning to practice in teacher education: embodied knowledge in learning to teach
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“…learning in teacher education signifies a pedagogical transition from predominantly knowledgebased teaching pedagogies towards practice-based enactment pedagogies, in which students hone their teaching skills by trial and error in scaffolded settings (Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald 2009).”
BackgroundAccélérer la manière dont nous apprenons à améliorer
Bryk, A. S. (2017) · Éducation & didactique · doi:10.4000/educationdidactique.2796 · Cited by 126
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Rakıcıoğlu‐Söylemez, A., & Eröz, B. (2014) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/ajte.2014v39n10.10 · Cited by 37
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Gotwalt, E. S. (2022) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2022.103975 · Cited by 50
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Does a Discussion by Any Other Name Sound the Same? Teaching Discussion in Three ELA Methods Courses
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The perceived affordances of simulation-based learning: online student teachers’ perspectives
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“Students have the opportunity to hone targeted skills within a setting of reduced complexity (Grossman et al., 2009a) supported by a learning community where they receive constructive feedback.”
BackgroundNoticing as reasoning in Lesson Study teams in initial teacher education
Bakker, C., de Glopper, K., & de Vries, S. (2022) · Teaching and Teacher Education : An International Journal of Research and Studies · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2022.103656 · Cited by 33
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Thompson, J. J., Hagenah, S., McDonald, S. P., & Barchenger, C. (2019) · Science Education · doi:10.1002/sce.21547 · Cited by 37
Appova, A., & Taylor, C. (2019) · Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10857-017-9385-z · Cited by 33
What Do Middle Grades Preservice Teachers Believe about Writing and Writing Instruction?
Hodges, T. S., Wright, K. L., & McTigue, E. (2019) · RMLE Online · doi:10.1080/19404476.2019.1565508 · Cited by 33
“Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009) stated that understanding how to write and being able to implement writing in a classroom can make an effective writing teacher.”
BackgroundCore Practices in Music Teaching: A Delphi Expert Panel Survey
Millican, J., & Forrester, S. (2018) · Journal of Music Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/1057083717736243 · Cited by 33
“Refining and focusing Shulman’s work, Grossman et al. (2009) advocated for a redefined curricular model of teacher education that is “organized around core practices, in which knowledge, skill, and professional identity are developed in the process of learning to practice” (p. 274).”
BackgroundInfluentialComplexities Involved in Mentoring toward a High-Leverage Practice in the Induction Years
Stanulis, R. N., & Brondyk, S. K. (2013) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811311501001 · Cited by 20
Creating theory-practice linkages in teacher education: Tracing the use of practice-based artefacts
Risan, M. (2020) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101670 · Cited by 33
Çelik, S. S. (2020) · Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/10901027.2020.1735588 · Cited by 37
“While such learning could sometimes be confusing and challenging, it helps pre-service teachers to manage the “reality shock of being a new teacher” (Grossman et al., 2009, p. 277).”
BackgroundInfluentialClinging to the Edge of Chaos: The Emergence of Practice in the First Year of Teaching
Strom, K. J., Martin, A., & Villegas, A. (2018) · Teachers College Record · doi:10.1177/016146811812000701 · Cited by 32
“Our definition of “professional practices” follows that adopted by Grossman et al. (2009): “A broad, expanded definition of practice characteristic of sociocultural definitions that incorporates both intellectual and technical activities and that encompasses both the individual practitioner and the…”
BackgroundForrester, S. (2018) · Journal of Research in Music Education · doi:10.1177/0022429417742124 · Cited by 32
Vujičić, L., & Tambolaš, A. Č. (2017) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2017.1317763 · Cited by 49
Supporting teachers’ use of research-based instructional sequences
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Innovation and the Evolving System of U.S. Teacher Preparation
Wilson, S. M. (2014) · Theory Into Practice · doi:10.1080/00405841.2014.916569 · Cited by 32
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Preservice Physical Education Teacher’s Development of Adaptive Competence
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McLeskey, J., Billingsley, B. S., & Ziegler, D. (2018) · Australasian Journal of Special and Inclusive Education · doi:10.1017/jsi.2018.3 · Cited by 31
“…practices (HLPs) for teachers in science, mathematics, foreign language, reading, and elementary and special education (Ball & Forzani, 2009; Grossman et al., 2009; Hlas & Hlas, 2012; Kucan et al., 2011; Martin-Raugh, Reese, Tannenbaum, Steinberg, & Xu, 2016; McLeskey & Brownell, 2015;…”
BackgroundEqual Outcomes 4 All: A Study of Student Learning in ECS
McGee, S., McGee-Tekula, R., Duck, J., McGee, C., Dettori, L., Greenberg, R. I., Snow, E., Rutstein, D., Reed, D., Wilkerson, B., et al. (2018) · Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education · doi:10.1145/3159450.3159529 · Cited by 31
Hanuscin, D. L., & Zangori, L. (2016) · doi:10.1007/s10972-016-9489-9 · Cited by 31
“…other reflected the vision of the NGSS. Prospective teachers experienced lessons through a student lens, and then engaged in analysis of practice (Grossman et al., 2009), unpacking the Disciplinary Core Ideas, Science and 804 D. L. Hanuscin, L. Zangori Engineering Practices, and Crosscutting…”
BackgroundMethodArias, A., & Davis, E. (2016) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2017.04.011 · Cited by 31
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Peercy, M. M. (2014) · Studying Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/17425964.2014.884970 · Cited by 37
“Through this more structured cycle, we could have examined small segments of their enactment of practices by deconstructing them and considering them in careful detail (Grossman et al., 2009; Lampert & Graziani, 2009; Troyan et al., 2013).”
MethodGrounded: Practicing What We Preach
Intrator, S., & Kunzman, R. (2009) · doi:10.1177/0022487109348598 · Cited by 31
“As Grossman et al. (2009) point out, Principles developed in the absence of assisted practice lack the depth required for novice teachers to enact such principles in practice.”
BackgroundPractice-based 21st-century teacher education: Design principles for adaptive expertise
Meneses, A., Nussbaum, M., Veas, M. G., & Arriagada, S. (2023) · Teaching and Teacher Education : An International Journal of Research and Studies · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2023.104118 · Cited by 31
Changing Cultures of Knowledge and Professional Learning
Nerland, M. B., & Jensen, K. (2014) · Springer international handbooks of education · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8902-8_23 · Cited by 29
Hong, S.-M., Moon, J., Eom, T., Awoyemi, I., & Hwang, J. (2025) · Education sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15080997 · Cited by 30
Wang, H., & Troia, G. A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1213929 · Cited by 37
“To become efficacious, it is crucial for teachers to develop a solid understanding of writing skills development and possess the capability to effectively implement writing instruction in their classrooms (Grossman et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMaking university mathematics matter for secondary teacher preparation
Wasserman, N. H., Buchbinder, O., & Buchholtz, N. (2023) · ZDM: Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s11858-023-01484-5 · Cited by 30
Knezek, G., Christensen, R., Smits, A., Tondeur, J., & Voogt, J. (2022) · Comput. Educ. · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104674 · Cited by 30
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“By contrast, simulation training is rare in teacher education (Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald 2009).”
BackgroundLearning to Teach: What Do Pre-service Teachers Report.
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Knight, R. (2015) · Journal of Education for Teaching International Research and Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/02607476.2015.1010874 · Cited by 31
“For example, the nurturing of long-term learning habits, drawing on opportunities beyond practical experience, advocated by Hagger et al. (2008) may be at odds with the performance-related demands of a school placement assessed against competences.”
BackgroundHostetler, L. A., & Flanagan, T. M. (2013) · Studying Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/17425964.2013.771573 · Cited by 44
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“It has been recognised that teachers often experience difficulties relating theories to their actual tasks in the classroom (Grossman et al., 2009).”
BackgroundHamman, D., Lechtenberger, D., Griffin-Shirley, N., & Zhou, L. (2013) · The Teacher Educator · doi:10.1080/08878730.2013.796030 · Cited by 21
Activity Approach in Teacher Education
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How can universities ensure quality of practice in initial teacher education?
Wiese, E., Hatlevik, I. K. R., & Daza, V. (2024) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2023.104462 · Cited by 30
Gotwals, A. W., & Cisterna, D. (2021) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2021.103601 · Cited by 37
Hill, H. C., Litke, E. G., & Lynch, K. (2018) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811812001207 · Cited by 33
Martin, M., Farrell, M., Seidel, T., Rieß, W., Könings, K. D., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Renkl, A. (2022) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-022-00331-z · Cited by 34
Matsumoto-Royo, K., Soledad, M., & Glasserman‐Morales, L. D. (2022) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2022.879238 · Cited by 29
Hermansen, H. (2019) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2019.1639815 · Cited by 44
Toom, A., Tiilikainen, M., Heikonen, L., Leijen, Ä., Mena, J., & Husu, J. (2019) · Policy, Teacher Education and the Quality of Teachers and Teaching · doi:10.1080/13540602.2019.1652162 · Cited by 27
Ulusoy, F., & Çakıroğlu, E. (2018) · Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education · doi:10.29333/ejmste/92020 · Cited by 27
“In prospective teacher education programs, it is important to build a connection between university-based courses and fieldwork in order to lessen the separation between theory and practice in the context of professional education (Darling-Hammond, 2006; Grossman et al., 2009).”
BackgroundLearning to teach mathematics specialists in a synchronous online course: a self-study
Hjalmarson, M. A. (2017) · Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education · doi:10.1007/s10857-015-9323-x · Cited by 27
“It is situated within larger calls for scholarly, reflective practices as teacher educators (Grossman et al. 2009).”
BackgroundTang, S. Y. F., Wong, K. Y. A., & Cheng, M. H. M. (2015) · Teachers and Teaching · doi:10.1080/13540602.2015.1023028 · Cited by 31
“In ITE coursework, practical tools are usually introduced in methods’ courses and include principles, frameworks or guidelines that guide decisions about teaching and learning and that can be enacted in practice (Grossman et al., 2009).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialReflecting on Talk: A Mentor Teacher’s Gradual Release in Co-Planning
Pylman, S. (2016) · The New Educator · doi:10.1080/1547688x.2015.1113347 · Cited by 34
Recitation and Reasoning in Novice History Teachers' Use of Writing
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“As Ball and Forzani (2009) and Grossman, Hammerness, and MacDonald (2009) pointed out, teacher candidates need opportunities to practice particular skills of teaching and hone those skills over time if they are to implement them successfully in their own classrooms after their preservice program.”
BackgroundExperimental Evidence on the Robustness of Coaching Supports in Teacher Education
Cohen, J., Wong, V. C., Krishnamachari, A., & Erickson, S. (2023) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x231198827 · Cited by 33
Rotem, S.-H., & Ayalon, M. (2022) · Journal of Mathematical Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jmathb.2022.100947 · Cited by 26
Peercy, M. M., Tigert, J. M., Fredricks, D. E., Kidwell, T., Feagin, K., Hall, W., Himmel, J., & DeStefano, M. (2022) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2022.103653 · Cited by 39
Schiera, A. J. (2020) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/0022487120964959 · Cited by 39
“In response to these critiques, P. Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009) recommend that justice-oriented programs “will need to decide what core practices will best leverage that broader purpose,” rethinking the role foundations courses play in the development of practice (p. 286).”
BackgroundWetzel, M. M., Taylor, L. A., & Vlach, S. K. (2017) · Teaching Education · doi:10.1080/10476210.2017.1309016 · Cited by 38
Damsa, C., & Nerland, M. (2016) · Vocations and Learning · doi:10.1007/s12186-016-9152-9 · Cited by 26
“Studies have also shown how the teaching domain is not a unified field of inquiry and has no common set of concerns and standardised methods for applying and generating knowledge (Eilam and Poyas 2009; Grossman et al. 2009).”
BackgroundMentoring Beginning Teachers to Enact Discussion-based Teaching
Stanulis, R. N., Brondyk, S. K., Little, S., & Wibbens, E. (2014) · Mentoring & Tutoring Partnership in Learning · doi:10.1080/13611267.2014.902556 · Cited by 24
“Novices can be scaffolded to see a specific practice in action and attempt it themselves with support, purposefully constructed for reflection and conversation (Grossman et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialUsing Culturally Ambitious Teaching Practices to Support Urban Mathematics Teaching and Learning
Waddell, L. R. (2014) · Journal of praxis in multicultural education/Praxis · doi:10.9741/2161-2978.1069 · Cited by 23
Effects of Critical Thinking Intervention for Early Childhood Teacher Candidates
Han, H., & Brown, E. (2013) · The Teacher Educator · doi:10.1080/08878730.2012.760699 · Cited by 26
The Educational Achievement Gap as a Social Justice Issue for Teacher Educators.
Collopy, R. M. B., Bowman, C., & Taylor, D. A. (2012) · doi:10.15365/joce.1601022013 · Cited by 26
Korthagen, F. A. J. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0366-0_8 · Cited by 104
Supporting Beginning Teacher Planning of Investigation-Based Science Discussions
Kademian, S. M., & Davis, E. A. (2018) · Journal of Science Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/1046560x.2018.1504266 · Cited by 29
“…and colleague feedback, interns may have been able to think more deeply about how to prioritize student contributions and decompose the practices necessary for facilitating a student-centered investigation-based discussion (cf. Arias, 2015; Boerst et al., 2011; Grossman et al., 2009; Nelson, 2011).”
BackgroundMartin, M., Farrell, M., Seidel, T., Rieß, W., Könings, K. D., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Renkl, A. (2023) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2023.104014 · Cited by 32
Jacobs, J., & Perez, J. I. (2023) · Teaching and Teacher Education : An International Journal of Research and Studies · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2022.103994 · Cited by 25
Kasperski, R., & Hemi, M. E. (2022) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2022.2134006 · Cited by 30
“Simulation-based learning represents a pedagogy of learning from experience, in which learners refine their teaching skills by trial and error in a safe environment (Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald 2009).”
Grosser-Clarkson, D. L., & Neel, M. A. (2020) · Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1177/0022487119880162 · Cited by 25
“Because we define core practices in teacher education according to the conceptual framing first advanced by Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald (2009)—as discussed in the previous section—we included only those articles that were written after this seminal piece.”
MethodGarcía‐Moya, I., Moreno, C., & Brooks, F. M. (2019) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2019.102883 · Cited by 58
Lachner, A., Weinhuber, M., & Nückles, M. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.03.008 · Cited by 32
Tack, H., & Vanderlinde, R. (2019) · European Journal of Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/02619768.2019.1628212 · Cited by 40
“However, to the best of our knowledge, large-scale research that empirically confirms the interplay between these factors and teacher educators’ researcherly disposition is still lacking (Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald 2009; Lunenberg, Dengerink, and Korthagen 2014).”
BackgroundEnhancing teacher education…with Twitter?
Carpenter, J. P., & Morrison, S. A. (2018) · Phi Delta Kappan · doi:10.1177/0031721718797118 · Cited by 40
Using simulation pedagogy to teach clinical education skills: A randomized trial
Holdsworth, C., Skinner, E. H., & Delany, C. M. (2016) · Physiotherapy Theory and Practice · doi:10.3109/09593985.2016.1139645 · Cited by 34
“…and providing students with information about how to do a clinically based task with a patient and why it was important to perform the task in a particular way (Archer, 2010; Bradley and Postlethwaite, 2003; Grossman, Hammerness, and McDonald, 2009; Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, and Chinn, 2007).”
BackgroundCheng, M., Tang, S., & Cheng, A.-N. Y. N. (2014) · Teachers and Teaching · doi:10.1080/13540602.2013.848566 · Cited by 25
Teacher Professional Becoming: A Practice-Based, Actor-Network Theory Perspective
Mulcahy, D. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1378-9_11 · Cited by 20
“Taking clinical practice seriously will require us to add pedagogies of enactment to our existing repertoire of pedagogies of reflection and investigation’ ( Grossman et al. 2009, p. 274 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialKim, A. (2025) · Journal for STEM Education Research · doi:10.1007/s41979-025-00154-3 · Cited by 37
“The effectiveness of PD is not uniform, as it is contingent upon multiple factors, including structured feedback, mentorship quality, and opportunities for skill application within authentic classroom environments (Grossman et al., 2009).”
Learning to teach with simulation: historical insights
Ledger, S., Mailizar, M., Gregory, S., Tanti, M., Gibson, D., & Kruse, S. (2024) · Journal of Computers in Education · doi:10.1007/s40692-024-00313-2 · Cited by 31
“…current and future simulation platforms in ITE particularly because of its potential to foster and make visible the highly relevant pedagogies of practice (Grossman et al., 2009), micro-teaching 2.0 (Ledger & Fischetti, 2020) and reflection in, on and for action and within practice (Schon, 1991).”
Influential
Metadata
- Authors
- Grossman, P., Hammerness, K., & McDonald, M.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Grossman, Pam
- ORCID
- Hammerness, Karen
- Venue
- Teachers and Teaching
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2009-04
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 273-289
- ISSN
- 1354-0602 (ISSN-L)
- 1470-1278
- OpenAlex
- W2082864650
- Cited by
- 1,759
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 140 · 2025: 135 · 2024: 140 · 2023: 141 · 2022: 151 · 2021: 133 · 2020: 132 · 2019: 155 · 2018: 134 · 2017: 112 · 2016: 107 · 2015: 96 · 2014: 54 · 2013: 50 · 2012: 45
- FWCI
- 108.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Teachers and Teaching (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Teacher Education and Leadership Studies
- Social Sciences › Education › Teacher Education and Assessments
- Social Sciences › Education › Mathematics Education and Teaching Techniques
- Keywords
- teacher professional development, clinical practice, university-school partnership, professional identity, learning to teach
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