The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth: new evidence for a panel of countries
Open accessAbstract
Using cross-country and panel regressions, we investigate to what extent gender gaps in education and employment (proxied using gender gaps in labor force participation) reduce economic growth. Using the most recent data and investigating an extended time period (1960–2000), we update the results of previous studies on education gaps on growth and extend the analysis to employment gaps using panel data. We find that gender gaps in education and employment considerably reduce economic growth. The combined “costs” of education and employment gaps in the Middle East and North Africa, and South Asia amount respectively to 0.9–1.7 and 0.1–1.6 percentage point differences in growth compared to East Asia. Gender gaps in employment appear to have an increasing effect on economic growth differences between regions, with the Middle East and North Africa, and South Asia suffering from slower growth in female employment.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The text we found for this paper looks like another document, so the self-check wasn’t run.
Cites
Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries
Barro, R. J. (1991) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.2307/2937943 · Cited by 9,449 · see citing works
Economic Growth in a Cross Section of Countries
Barro, R. J. (1989) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w3120 · Cited by 8,483 · see citing works
Frankel, J. A., & Romer, D. (1999) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.89.3.379 · Cited by 5,593 · see citing works
Moffitt, R. (2009) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.99.2.660 · Cited by 4,888 · see citing works
International Labour Organization
(2022) · Permanent missions to the United Nations · doi:10.18356/9789210018289c229 · Cited by 4,312 · see citing works
International data on educational attainment: updates and implications
Barro, R. J. (2001) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/53.3.541 · Cited by 2,604 · see citing works
Trade Policy and Economic Growth: A Skeptic's Guide to the Cross-National Evidence
Rodríguez, F. R., & Rodrik, D. (2000) · NBER Macroeconomics Annual · doi:10.1086/654419 · Cited by 2,376 · see citing works
A Reassessment of the Relationship Between Inequality and Growth
Forbes, K. J. (2000) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.90.4.869 · Cited by 2,028 · see citing works
New ways of looking at old issues: inequality and growth
Deininger, K., & Squire, L. (1998) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/s0304-3878(98)00099-6 · Cited by 1,706 · see citing works
International Data on Educational Attainment Updates and Implications
Barro, R. J., & Lee, J. (2000) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w7911 · Cited by 1,601 · see citing works
The Gender Gap, Fertility and Growth
Galor, O., & Weil, D. (1993) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w4550 · Cited by 1,594 · see citing works
Demographic Transitions and Economic Miracles in Emerging Asia
Bloom, D. E., & Williamson, J. G. (1998) · The World Bank Economic Review · doi:10.1093/wber/12.3.419 · Cited by 1,382 · see citing works
Growth, Inequality and Poverty: Looking Beyond Averages
Ravallion, M. D. (2001) · World Development · doi:10.1016/s0305-750x(01)00072-9 · Cited by 1,273 · see citing works
International Measures of Schooling Years and Schooling Quality.
Barro, R. J., & Lee, J. (1996) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 1,151 · see citing works
Barro, R. J., & Lee, J. (1994) · Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy · doi:10.1016/0167-2231(94)90002-7 · Cited by 1,145 · see citing works
Swamy, A. V., Knack, S., Lee, Y., & Azfar, O. (2001) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/s0304-3878(00)00123-1 · Cited by 1,109 · see citing works
King, E. M., & Mason, A. (2001) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/0-1952-1596-6 · Cited by 781 · see citing works
Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development.
Greenhalgh, S. M., & Tinker, I. (1991) · Population and Development Review · doi:10.2307/1973616 · Cited by 776 · see citing works
Klasen, S. (2002) · The World Bank Economic Review · doi:10.1093/wber/lhf004 · Cited by 762 · see citing works
Self-citationGender and Cooperative ConflictsPreprint
Sen, A. K., & Sen, A. (1987) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · doi:10.22004/ag.econ.295507 · Cited by 708 · see citing works
Collier, P., & Gunning, J. W. (1999) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.13.3.3 · Cited by 639 · see citing works
Gender Inequality and Economic Growth: A Cross-Country Analysis
Seguino, S. (2000) · World Development · doi:10.1016/s0305-750x(00)00018-8 · Cited by 590 · see citing works
Gender inequality, income, and growth : are good times good for women ?
Dollar, D. (1999) · Cited by 502 · see citing works
Economic growth in the 1990s: learning from a decade of reform
Bank, W. (2005) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.43-2318 · Cited by 462 · see citing works
Women's Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits, and Policies
Lloyd, C. B., King, E. M., & Hill, M. A. (1994) · Population and Development Review · doi:10.2307/2137674 · Cited by 449 · see citing works
Are educational gender gaps a brake on economic development? Some cross-country empirical evidence
Knowles, S. (2002) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/54.1.118 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
Women's education and economic well-being
Hill, M. A., & King, E. M. (1995) · Feminist Economics · doi:10.1080/714042230 · Cited by 389 · see citing works
Women's education in developing countries
King, E. M., & Hill, M. A. (1993) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/0-8018-4534-3 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
"MISSING WOMEN": REVISITING THE DEBATE
Klasen, S., & Wink, C. (2003) · Feminist Economics · doi:10.1080/1354570022000077999 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Costs of Missing the Millennium Development Goal on Gender Equity
Abu-Ghaida, D., & Klasen, S. (2004) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.02.003 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
Self-citationGender Equality and Long-Run Growth
Lagerlöf, N. (2003) · Journal of Economic Growth · doi:10.1023/a:1026256917489 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Intrahousehold Resource Allocation in Developing Countries
Bonnekessen, B. (1999) · Culture & Agriculture · doi:10.1525/cag.1999.21.1.46 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Accounting for Gender in Asian Economic Growth
Seguino, S. (2000) · Feminist Economics · doi:10.1080/135457000750020128 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Gender Discrimination and Growth: Theory and Evidence from IndiaPreprint
Esteve-Volart, B. (2004) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Does Gender have any Effect on Aggregate Saving? An empirical analysis
Seguino, S., & Floro, M. (2003) · International Review of Applied Economics · doi:10.1080/0269217032000064026 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Gender and its Relevance to Macroeconomic Policy
Stotsky, J. G. (2006) · IMF Working Paper · doi:10.2139/ssrn.941295 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Busse, M., & Spielmann, C. (2006) · Review of International Economics · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9396.2006.00589.x · Cited by 166 · see citing works
The Output Cost of Gender Discrimination: A Model‐based Macroeconomics Estimate
Cavalcanti, T. V. D. V., & Tavares, J. (2015) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1111/ecoj.12303 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Grimes, P. W., van de Walle, D., & Nead, K. (1997) · Southern Economic Journal · doi:10.2307/1061065 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Demand for Children in Low Income CountriesPreprint
Schultz, T. (1993) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Decomposing the Gender Gap in Cognitive Skills in a Poor Rural Economy
Alderman, H., Behrman, J. R., Ross, D. R., & Sabot, R. H. (1996) · The Journal of Human Resources · doi:10.2307/146049 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
The Social Outcomes of Education and Feedbacks on Growth in Africa
Appiah, E. N., & McMahon, W. W. (2002) · The Journal of Development Studies · doi:10.1080/00220380412331322411 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Gender-related Indicators of Well-being
Klasen, S. (2007) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9780230625600_7 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationBlecker, R. A., & Seguino, S. (2002) · Review of Development Economics · doi:10.1111/1467-9361.00144 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
INCOME INEQUALITY WITHIN EUROPEAN REGIONS: DETERMINANTS AND EFFECTS ON GROWTH
Perugini, C., & Martino, G. (2008) · Review of Income and Wealth · doi:10.1111/j.1475-4991.2008.00280.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
The Familiar but Curious Economics of Higher Education: Introduction to a Symposium
Clotfelter, C. T. (1999) · The Journal of Economic Perspectives · doi:10.1257/jep.13.1.3 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Gender and Growth in Sub-Saharan Africa: Issues and Evidence
Blackden, M., Canagarajah, S., Klasen, S., et al. (2007) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9780230801462_19 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Self-citationGender and Development in the Middle East and North Africa
Bank, W. (2004) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/0-8213-5676-3 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
The effect of female and male schooling on economic growth in the Barro-Lee model
Lorgelly, P. K., & Owen, P. D. (1999) · Empirical Economics · doi:10.1007/s001810050071 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Keller, J., & Nabli, M. K. (2002) · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Gender and Growth in Africa: Evidence and Issues
Blackden, M., Canaragajah, S., Klasen, S., et al. (2006) · Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationCreating a forum for feminist economic inquiry
Strassmann, D. L. (1995) · Feminist Economics · doi:10.1080/714042211 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Public Schooling Expenditures in Rural Pakistan: Efficiently Targeting Girls and a Lagging Region.
Alderman, H. (1995) · Cited by 39 · see citing works
The Social Outcomes of Education and Feedbacks on Growth in AfricaPreprint
McMahon, W. W., & Appiah, E. M. (2002) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Pro-poor Growth: Policy and Evidence
Menkhoff, L. 1. (2006) · Duncker & Humblot eBooks · doi:10.3790/978-3-428-52361-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
United Nations Women's Indicators and Statistics CD-ROM Database (WISTAT): Version 3
Faries, C. (1996) · Journal of Government Information · doi:10.1016/s1352-0237(97)89746-8 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Help or Hindrance? Religion’s Impact on Gender Inequality in Attitudes and Outcomes
Seguino, S. (2011) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.12.004 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Islam, K. M. M., & Asadullah, M. N. (2018) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0190807 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Mohamed, Y., Durrant, K., Huggett, C., Davis, J., Macintyre, A., Menu, S., Wilson, J. N., Ramosaea, M., Sami, M., Barrington, D. J., et al. (2018) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0208224 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Reduced workforce participation affects women’s individual and household income [28, 29], and has a demonstrated effect on country-level economic growth [30, 31].”
Background
- Authors
- Klasen, S., & Lamanna, F.
- Affiliations
- University of Göttingen (DE)
- World Bank Group (US)
- Corresponding author
- Klasen, Stephan
- Lamanna, Francesca
- Venue
- Feminist Economics
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2009-07-01
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 91-132
- ISSN
- 1354-5701 (ISSN-L)
- 1466-4372
- OpenAlex
- W1990580613
- Cited by
- 887
- References
- 57
- Citations by year
- 2026: 83 · 2025: 88 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 90 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 55 · 2020: 62 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 35 · 2014: 41 · 2013: 38 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 38.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- cc-by-nc-nd
- Locations
- Feminist Economics (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- The World Bank Open Knowledge Repository (World Bank) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- GRO (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Labor, and Family Dynamics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Economic Growth and Productivity
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Economic Growth and Development
- Keywords
- gender inequality, gender gaps in education, gender employment gap, female labor force participation, economic growth, Middle East and North Africa, South Asia
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review