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The efficacy of randomised controlled trials of cognitive behaviour therapy for perfectionism: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Open accessAbstract
Perfectionism is a transdiagnostic process across anxiety, depression, and eating disorders. The aim of this systematic review was to examine the efficacy of self-help and face to face CBT for perfectionism in reducing perfectionism and anxiety, depression, and eating disorders. A total of 15 randomised controlled trials of CBT for perfectionism were identified (N = 912 participants; mean pooled age = 23 years) which met inclusion criteria. There were medium or large effect sizes found on perfectionism measures; personal standards (g = 0.57, 95% CI = 0.43–0.72), concern over mistakes (g = 0.89, 95% CI = 0.71–1.08) and clinical perfectionism (g = 0.87, 95% CI = 0.70–1.04). There were medium effects for symptoms of eating disorders (g = 0.61, 95% CI = 0.36–0.87) and depression (g = 0.60, 95% CI = 0.28–0.91), and a small-medium effect on anxiety (g = 0.42, 95% CI = 0.21–0.62). There was no publication bias found. Limitations included the small number of trials included and lack of active treatment comparisons. Results suggested that CBT for perfectionism is efficacious in reducing perfectionism and symptoms of depression, anxiety and eating disorders. Future research should examine comparisons of CBT for perfectionism with other psychological treatments.
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“Over the last two decades, a cognitive behavioural therapy for perfectionism (CBT-P) has been successfully used to modify the standards, concerns, and behaviours of perfectionists (e.g. Egan and Shafran, 2018; Egan et al ., 2016) with the goal of alleviating their symptoms of depression, anxiety, and eating disorders”
From The impact of internet-based cognitive behavior therapy for perfectionism: a reinterpretation through the lens of the Model of Excellencism and Perfectionism (2024) · cites this paper as Galloway et al., 2022
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
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“CBT for perfectionism is undoubtedly the leading treatment for perfectionism and has been examined in 15 randomised controlled trials (RCTs), across a variety of groups (see Galloway et al., 2022).”
From Coming of age: A reflection of the first 21 years of cognitive behaviour therapy for perfectionism (2023) · cites this paper as Galloway et al., 2022
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The efficacy of treatment has been demon strated via statistical significance (all 15 RCTs included in the Galloway et al., 2022 meta-analysis), in addition to reliable and clinically signif icant change (e.g., Handley et al., 2015; Hoiles et al., 2022; Riley et al., 2007; Shu et al., 2019).”
From Coming of age: A reflection of the first 21 years of cognitive behaviour therapy for perfectionism (2023) · cites this paper as Galloway et al., 2022
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“Significant improvement in psychological adjustment after CBT-P was found in a recent meta-analytical review (Galloway et al ., 2022) and discussed in a reflection of the first 21 years of the intervention (Shafran et al ., 2023).”
From The impact of internet-based cognitive behavior therapy for perfectionism: a reinterpretation through the lens of the Model of Excellencism and Perfectionism (2024) · cites this paper as Galloway et al., 2022
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“Despite 15 randomised controlled trials which have demonstrated the efficacy of CBT for perfectionism in reducing perfectionism and symptoms of anxiety, depression and eating disorders, strong responses to this work continue to appear in the literature.”
From Coming of age: A reflection of the first 21 years of cognitive behaviour therapy for perfectionism (2023) · cites this paper as Galloway et al., 2022
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
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“CBT for perfectionism is undoubtedly the leading treatment for perfectionism and has been examined in 15 randomised controlled trials (RCTs), across a variety of groups (see Galloway et al., 2022).”
From Coming of age: A reflection of the first 21 years of cognitive behaviour therapy for perfectionism (2023) · cites this paper as Galloway et al., 2022
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“A strength of the literature to date is that across the 15 randomised controlled trials of CBT for perfectionism, the treatment has been delivered in a variety of different modalities, age ranges and populations.”
From Coming of age: A reflection of the first 21 years of cognitive behaviour therapy for perfectionism (2023) · cites this paper as Galloway et al., 2022
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“…be a shared maintaining process across multiple disorders (Egan et al., 2011), and as outlined in this review is linked to many different symptoms, CBT-P may be an effective transdiagnostic treatment for perfectionism and symptoms of anxiety, depression and eating disorders (Galloway et al., 2022).”
Self-citationComing of age: A reflection of the first 21 years of cognitive behaviour therapy for perfectionism
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“Meta-analyses have demonstrated CBT-P is efficacious in the reduction of perfectionism and symptoms of anxiety, depression and eating disorders (Galloway et al., 2022; Robinson and Wade, 2021), with no difference in efficacy between face-to-face or internet delivered formats (Suh et al., 2019).”
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“Third, interventions exist that reduce perfectionism (for meta- analyses see Galloway et al., 2021; Lloyd et al., 2015).”
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“Correlation findings between perfectionism and study variables further confirm the previous assumptions that perfectionism dimensions are related to several psychopathological processes [11], and could be involved in their treatment [33], including in Arab settings.”
BackgroundResultThe need to focus on perfectionism in suicide assessment, treatment and prevention
Flett, G. L., & Hewitt, P. L. (2024) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21157 · Cited by 20
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“…perfectionism in college students, and meta-analyses have revealed no differences between face-to-face and internet-delivered CBT for perfectionism (Galloway et al., 2022; Suh et al., 2019) While web-based interventions have increased accessibility to mental health resources, the availability of…”
Egan, S. J., Neal, J., Ure, S., Callaghan, T., Ho, P., Shafran, R., & Wade, T. D. (2023) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-023-00860-6 · Cited by 14
“Similarly, the shift in clinical range for anxiety in adolescents isis also consistent with previous research on the efficacy of CBT-P [13, 14, 21].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationSelf-Compassion as a Moderator between Clinical Perfectionism and Psychological Distress
Adams, V., Howell, J., & Egan, S. J. (2023) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050067.2022.2125281 · Cited by 12
“CBT for perfectionism decreases psychological distress (Galloway et al., 2022), and involves a number of cognitive and behavioural strategies to reduce perfectionism (see Egan et al., 2014; Shafran et al., 2018).”
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A guide for self-help guides: best practice implementation
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“Significant improvement in psychological adjustment after CBT-P was found in a recent meta-analytical review (Galloway et al ., 2022) and discussed in a reflection of the first 21 years of the intervention (Shafran et al ., 2023).”
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Computerized treatment of perfectionism through mistake making: A preliminary study
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“This research has recently been summarized by Galloway et al. (2022) who conducted a meta-analysis of 15 randomized control trials which used cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to reduce perfectionism, anxiety, depression, and eating disorders.”
MethodRobinson, K., Egan, S. J., Shafran, R., & Wade, T. D. (2024) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2024.2313739 · Cited by 11
“…has been demonstrated to be associated with ED symptoms (Bills et al., 2023; Stackpole et al., 2023) which decrease when perfectionism is targeted in treatment (Suh et al., 2019), along with symptoms of depression, anxiety, and self-criticism (Galloway et al., 2022; Robinson & Wade, 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-citationJohnson, C., Egan, S. J., Carlbring, P., Shafran, R., & Wade, T. D. (2024) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2024.100795 · Cited by 9
Self-citationMultidimensional perfectionism and the ICD-11 personality disorder model
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“However, the systematic review did not identify any studies looking at the effectiveness on perfectionism within bipolar specifically [54].”
BackgroundMethodA clinician’s quick guide to evidence-based approaches: perfectionism
Egan, S. J., Shafran, R., & Wade, T. D. (2022) · Clinical Psychologist · doi:10.1080/13284207.2022.2108315 · Cited by 6
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“If ImRs had not been effective for Jacob, addressing perfectionism as a transdiagnostic issue (e.g., Galloway et al., 2021), or longer-term schema therapy (e.g., Young et al., 2003) would have been considered.”
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“Similar to previous meta-analyses [Lloyd et al., 2015; Suh et al., 2019], Galloway et al. [2022] found moderate effect sizes for reductions in perfectionism scores.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialEffects of perceived maternal and adolescent perfectionism on adolescent depression
Wu, P. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03615-9 · Cited by 7
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“CBT treatment targeting perfectionism has shown to be efficacious in reducing perfectionism, as well as symptoms of anxiety in general (Galloway et al., 2022).”
BackgroundPerfectionism: Its Structure, Transdiagnostic Nature, and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Kaçar‐Başaran, S. (2022) · Psikiyatride Guncel Yaklasimlar - Current Approaches in Psychiatry · doi:10.18863/pgy.1082001 · Cited by 8
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“Several types of interventions have proven effective for this, such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and mind-fulness-based therapies [113, 114].”
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“…between FMPS-CM and FMPS-PS, i.e. perfectionistic concerns and standards, has been demonstrated in meta-analytic findings of CBT for perfectionism (Galloway et al., 2021), and might be due to a greater emphasis on targeting predictions and cognitive biases, while focusing less on addressing…”
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Obsessive-compulsive symptoms in individuals with a history of eating disorders
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Self-citationCognitive distortions and perfectionism during bipolar and unipolar depressive episode
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“Additionally, there were small to medium effect sizes for anxiety (g = 0.43) and depression (g = 0.48) (23).”
InfluentialJones, E. J., Mazzucchelli, T. G., Howell, J. A., Callaghan, T., & Egan, S. J. (2024) · Eating Disorders · doi:10.1080/10640266.2024.2347118 · Cited by 2
“…research may then examine the efficacy of internet delivered Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for clinical perfectionism (CBT-P) interventions (e.g., Egan et al., 2023; Galloway et al., 2022; Shafran et al., 2023; Shu et al., 2019) for adolescents in the community at risk of developing eating disorders.”
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“The CPQ was chosen over the other multidimensional measures due to its appropriate fit within the cognitive-behavioral therapy model, which is considered the gold standard for treating clinical perfectionism [14].”
MethodAn Integrated Cognitive-Emotional Perspective of NSSI
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Perfectionism and disordered eating in South Asian women in the United States
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Fuster‐Rico, A., Vicent, M., Sánchez-Meca, J., & Gonzálvez, C. (2026) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2026.2631149 · Cited by 2
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“…conceptualization is supported by evidence that perfectionism can be reduced through engagement in therapy for clinical perfectionism and induced in adults without psychopathology in a day (Boone & Soenens, 2015; Boone et al., 2012; Galloway et al., 2022; Ip, 2025; Suh et al., 2019; Wegerer, 2024).”
Mammadov, S., Avci, A. H., & Osborn, K. (2026) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/00169862261454703 · Cited by 1
Wade, T. D., Egan, S. J., Jabs, M., de Valle, M. K., & Shafran, R. (2026) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-026-03131-2 · Cited by 1
Self-citationMükemmeliyetçiliğin, Yeme Bozukluğu ve Obsesif Kompulsif Bozukluk ile İlişkisi: Bir Gözden Geçirme
ÖZ, M. (2024) · Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi · doi:10.46237/amusbfd.1298944 · Cited by 1
邵良超, & 鞠晓蕾 (2025) · 人文与社会科学学刊 · doi:10.70693/rwsk.v1i1.447 · Cited by 1
Sand, L., Bøe, T., Stormark, K. M., Bjaastad, J. F., & Hysing, M. (2023) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-3131669/v1
Applying process-oriented hypnosis to treat perfectionism-related depression
Criswell, S. R. (2023) · American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis · doi:10.1080/00029157.2023.2208638 · Cited by 1
Wegerer, M. (2023) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000531483
“Selbst die Erforschung klassischer KVT-Interventionen weist jedoch eine Reihe an Einschränkungen auf: Zwar fanden verschiedene Meta-analysen [Lloyd et al., 2015; Suh et al., 2019; Galloway et al., 2022]”
Background(2024) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000535963
Non-pharmacological Interventions for Mental Disorders
(2024) · Frontiers research topics · doi:10.3389/978-2-8325-4708-3
Robinson, K., Atkinson, M. J., Kylišová, K., Egan, S. J., Shafran, R., & Wade, T. D. (2024) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3444 · Cited by 3
Self-citationLong-Term Chronicity of Work Addiction: The Role of Personality and Work MotivationsPreprint
Kun, B., & Kökönyei, G. (2024) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4795488/v1
Working with Dysfunctional Attitudes and Perfectionism in Bipolar Disorder
Richardson, T. H. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-63349-2_16
McKay, D. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009086264.005
Multidimensional perfectionism and daily self-control episodes
Altstötter–Gleich, C., Prestele, E., Grommisch, G., & Lischetzke, T. (2025) · Personality Science · doi:10.1177/27000710241310361 · Cited by 2
打破完美的枷锁：认知行为疗法对完美主义者社会适应能力的干预效果研究
邵良超, & 鞠晓蕾 (2025) · 人文与社会科学学刊 · doi:10.70693/rwsk.v1i1.556
Widening the Reach: The Broad Impact of Unguided Self‐Help for Eating Disorders
Shafran, R., & Egan, S. J. (2025) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.24460
Self-citationSchons, K. R. R., Gil, A., Fasolo, B. N. D., Barbosa, L. M., de Mattos, M. P. B., & dos Santos, V. F. L. (2025) · Debates em Psiquiatria · doi:10.25118/2763-9037.2025.v15.1452
Oh, S., Hee, J. Y., Joo, J., Lee, J. H., Lee, Y., Lee, H. J., Yoon, D. U., & Lee, J. (2025) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2025.100851
Perfectionism and Well-Being: An Investigation into the Mediating Role of Eudaimonic Motives
Burkitt, W. T. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251370269
Jiang, Z., Egan, S. J., Greene, D., Frost, M., Ma, Y., & Shafran, R. (2025) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506073.2025.2547199
Self-citationThe Farsi version of effortless perfectionism scale: exploring psychometric properties
Peimanpak, F., Karimi, S., & Abdollahi, A. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03799-2
“The negative correlation between EPS and life satisfaction observed in this study corroborates findings from Galloway et al. (2022) and Ventura et al. (2018), who demonstrated that striving to appear effortlessly perfect undermines genuine well-being [7, 9].”
Clinical perfectionism and its treatment through cognitive behavioural therapy
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Commandeur, I., Veenstra, L., Hillenaar, T., & van Stralen, M. M. (2026) · TSG - Tijdschrift voor gezondheidswetenschappen · doi:10.1007/s12508-026-00482-8
Arbich, D., Kaplan, D., & Dar, R. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16030434
“This negative bias may stem from psychological characteristics that are relatively prevalent in those with eating disorders (Fairburn et al., 2008), such as perfectionism (Galloway et al., 2022), cognitive inflexibility, and obsessionality (Call et al., 2017).”
Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches for Reducing Perfectionism Cognitions in Athletes
Watson, D. R., Hill, A. P., Madigan, D. J., & Wood, A. G. (2026) · Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology · doi:10.1123/jcsp.2025-0027 · Cited by 1
Ussorowska-Krokosz, A. (2026) · Przegląd Psychologiczny · doi:10.31648/przegldpsychologiczny.11789
Metadata
- Authors
- Galloway, R., Watson, H., Greene, D., Shafran, R., & Egan, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Curtin University (AU)
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Egan, Sarah J.
- Venue
- Cognitive Behaviour Therapy
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2021-08-04
- Volume
- 51
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 170-184
- ISSN
- 1650-6073 (ISSN-L)
- 1651-2316
- OpenAlex
- W4229072348
- Cited by
- 115
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 1
- FWCI
- 2.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- discovery.ucl.ac.uk
- Locations
- Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- not funded
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Perfectionism, Procrastination, Anxiety Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Obsessive-Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
- Keywords
- perfectionism, self-help intervention, anxiety, depression, eating disorders, transdiagnostic mechanisms, concern over mistakes, personal standards, clinical perfectionism, treatment efficacy
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