Alcohol and Historiography in Early China

May combine two claims.

These texts acknowledge orgiastic sacrificial atmospheres and warn against excess.

“Yet these texts also acknowledge the at times orgiastic atmosphere in which sacrificial events took place and warn of the dangers of excess.”

May combine two claims.

Lu Kuang invoked the Odes and Analects, which seemed to disagree about alcohol, and reconciled them by distinguishing eras of official versus private wine control.

“Lu Kuang then invokes two canonical texts that seemingly take opposing views on alcohol consumption, only to try and reconcile both positions:”

• cites OdesNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites AnalectsNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In early China, drinking alcohol carried moral ambiguity, and how people used or abused alcohol served as a standard for evaluating the past.

“This paper examines the moral ambiguity that surrounded alcohol consumption in early China and the ways in which the use and abuse of alcohol served as a measure to judge the past.”

May combine two claims.

Alcohol was central to ritual but also challenged ritual's physical and moral restraints.

“Alcohol was a central ingredient in ritual proceedings, yet it also challenged the physical and moral restraints imposed by ritual.”

May combine two claims.

Before the Han, authorities tried to limit alcohol use; Qin imposed periodic restrictions.

“There were precedents prior to the establishment of the Han when authorities sought to curb the use and abuse of alcohol.The state of Qin for instance had placed periodic restrictions on alcohol.”

May combine two claims.

In Lu Kuang's memorial, ritual precept and perceived moral conduct of drinkers were both important markers.

“Returning to Lu Kuang's memorial, however, it is clear that both ritual precept as well as the perceived moral conduct of those who drank were important markers.”

May combine two claims.

Rule-guided drinking belonged to social life and was central to sacrificial ritual, acting as a way to please spirits.

“Rule-guided drinking was part of social life, but, importantly, it was also a corner stone in sacrificial ritual and therefore an important measure to please the spirit world.”

May combine two claims.

The Da Yu ding inscription praises King Wu's overthrow of Shang and Zhou sobriety in sacrifices.

“An inscription cast on a bronze known as the”

• cites Da Yu dingNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Moderation or excess in drinking indicated a regime's health; bad overindulgent rulers were contrasted with sages depicted as moderate drinkers.

“Moderation or excess in drinking was seen as a key indicator in a regime's health: bad and overindulgent rulers were pitched against sages, who were portrayed as masters in the art of moderate consumption.”

May combine two claims.

Lu Kuang emphasized wine's vital role in sacrifice, noted its medical benefits, and argued that alcohol abuse caused past decadence.

“Indeed in his memorial Lu first emphasizes the vital role of wine in sacrificial ritual.He also points at its medical benefits and then goes on to argue that alcohol abuse had led to decadence in the past:”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The purity and quality of sacrificial and banquet brews reflected the moral calibre of the times.

“Not only the consumption of alcohol, but also the purity and quality of the brews offered around the sacrificial altars and imbibed during banquets, it is claimed here, reflect the moral calibre of the times one lives in.”

May combine two claims.

Brewing was nearly impossible to police, unlike salt and iron, so the Han monopoly was abolished soon after court debates in 81 BCE.

“Unlike the production of salt and iron, brewing turned out to be almost impossible to patrol and so the monopoly was abolished shortly afterwards following court debates in 81 BCE.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Such judgments appear throughout the written record from Zhou bronze inscriptions to Han memorials.

“These judgements run as a red thread through the written record, from Zhou bronze inscriptions to Han memorials.”

May combine two claims.

Historical judgment was intertwined with how rulers and officials handled alcohol; overindulgent rulers were contrasted with sages as moderate drinkers.

“Historical judgement was intricately intertwined with an assessment of how successive rulers and their officials handled alcohol: overindulgent rulers were pitched against sages, who were portrayed as masters in the art of moderate consumption.”

May combine two claims.

The Mao Gong ding warns against overindulgence, and other vessel inscriptions record alcohol abuse.

“A stark warning against overindulgence in drink also occurs in the”

• cites Mao Gong dingNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Lu Kuang's proposal used alcohol consumption as a marker for judging the past and individual morality: bureaucratic control made alcohol good, while control by the people caused trouble.

“It is noteworthy how Lu Kuang's proposal to establish a government monopoly invokes alcohol consumption as a marker for judgement of the past and the moral conduct of individuals: when alcohol falls within the control of bureaucratic office (guan 官) it can be a substance for the good; however when handled by”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Pronouncement is framed as a speech by King Cheng or the Duke of Zhou to the king's younger brother and describes Shang's fall through its last rulers' drinking.

“The text takes the form of a speech by King Cheng 成王 (r.1042/35-1006 BCE), or, possibly, the Duke of Zhou 周公 (r.1115-1108 BCE), to the king's younger brother, and it describes how the Shang perished when its last rulers succumbed to drinking.”

• cites ShangshuNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Huainanzi says Yi Di created ale, Yu the Great tasted it with appreciation, then removed Yi Di and banned alcohol to prevent excess.

“When Yi Di 義 (儀) 狄, the legendary inventor of ale, created his brew, the Huainanzi 淮南子 states, Yu 禹 the Great sampled it with appreciation but next removed his minister from office and issued a prohibition on alcohol to prevent excess.”

• cites HuainanziNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Pronouncement ends with a Zhou pledge to monitor alcohol intake, arrest drinking groups, and counsel addicted Shang officials.

“The Pronouncement concludes with a pledge that the succeeding Zhou would monitor the intake of alcohol, arrest groups gathering to drink and give counsel to Shang ministers and officials who were addicted to alcohol.”

• cites ShangshuNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Mozi says such rites draw opportunistic beggars who gorge on food and travel from funeral to funeral to fill themselves.

“These rituals attract opportunistic beggars who “stuff food away like hamsters”.People dash from funeral to funeral with their extended family to fill up:”

• cites [40] Shuihudi Qin mu zhujian 睡虎地秦墓竹簡 [Manuscripts on bamboo from the Qin tomb at Shuihudi]. Edited by Shuihudi Qin mu zhujian zhengli xiaozu 整理小组. Beijing: Wenwu, 1991; rpt. 2001.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Lothar von Falkenhausen argues that new food-centered rituals could indicate greater emphasis on ritual formality, purity, and separation of ritual from daily life.

“Lothar von Falkenhausen argues that new food-centered rituals could indicate a greater emphasis on ritual formality, ritual purity, and an increasing desire to separate the sphere of ritual from daily life.”

• cites Lothar von FalkenhausenNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A later Shangshu chapter says wine destroyed the Shang founders' virtue, Heaven sent wrath, and the Shang ate sacrificial animals.

“Wine, a later chapter in the Shangshu notes, destroyed the virtue of its founders, Heaven had sent down its wrath, and the Shang people committed the ultimate crime: they ate the animal victims destined for the spirits.”

• cites ShangshuNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The Confucius figure topped the list of moderate consumers.

“To no great surprise the Confucius figure topped the list of moderate consumers.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Pronouncement's second part praises early Shang kings and denounces King Zhou for excess.

“In the second part of the address the founding kings of Shang are praised for their virtues while Zhou 紂, the last descendent of the once virtuous kings, is denounced for his excesses:”

• cites ShangshuNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In pre-imperial and early imperial times, dominant assessments of alcohol's effects centered on moral ambiguity, social and ritual malfunction, and inevitable political decline, unlike early medieval literary portrayals that treated escapism, pleasure, temptation, stimulus, and inspiration as positive.

“Whereas in literary portrayals and poetry of early medieval China (3 rd cent.CE onwards), escapism, pleasure, temptation, stimulus and inspiration would become increasingly accommodated as positive virtues brought on by alcohol, the predominant assessments of the effects of alcohol in pre-imperial and early imperial times appear to hinge on moral ambiguity, social and ritual malfunction, and the”

May combine two claims.

Late Warring States and Han texts increasingly insist on moderation and the principle that good rulers should be sober.

“As is already clear from the story of the demise of Shang, late Warring States and Han texts increasingly insist on the ideal of moderation and the principle that good rulers should be sober.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Xu Shen defined jiu as 'to achieve,' the means by which good and evil in human nature are achieved, composed of shui and you, also meaning 'to produce' and the means by which good and bad fortune arise.

“Jiu 酒 'alcohol' means jiu 就 'to achieve'.It is the means whereby the good and evil in human nature are achieved.The (graph) is composed of shui 水 and you 酉, the latter also representing its phonetic.It also means zao 造 'to produce' and is the means whereby good and bad fortune are made to arise.”

• cites Xu ShenNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Some in those debates claimed that drinking rituals were created to restrain alcohol abuse.

“The rules for ritualised drinking themselves, some claimed, were invented to control the excessive use of alcohol:”

• cites [42] Shuoyuan jiaozheng 說苑校證 [The garden of persuasions]. Attributed to Liu Xiang 劉向 (79–8 BCE), annotated by Xiang Zonglu 向宗魯 Beijing: Zhonghua, 2000.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Yanzi told his lord that ancient protocol required execution for those who toasted more than five rounds.

“On one occasion he tells his lord that in antiquity protocol required that all those who toasted more than five rounds would face execution.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In that story, Confucius appears to tolerate heavy drinking to teach Zigong about balancing obligation and leisure.

“On this occasion Confucius seemingly accommodates unrestrained drinking to make a wider point to his disciple about a balance between duty and leisure.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Apocryphal anecdotes can still illustrate real tensions in early Chinese drinking culture.

May combine two claims.

By late Western Zhou, alcohol may have been less important as a sacrifice, but it continued to be consumed ritually.

“While by late Western Zhou times alcohol may have been less significant as a sacrificial offering, it certainly continued to be consumed in a ritual setting.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Yanzi insisted that drinking aimed at capturing mood and friendly relations, and that ancient drinking did not detract from duties.

“The aim of drinking, Yanzi insisted, was to capture each other's mood and get on with each other on a friendly basis.At no point, we are told, did the ancients' drinking detract from their duties.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Duke of Zhou passage shows effortless rule through delegation and attracting talent, allowing a sage ruler to enjoy alcohol and music and even create personal wealth.

“Here effortless rule through delegating tasks and attracting talent to one's service allows a sage ruler to partake of alcohol and music and even to engage in some measure of personal wealth creation.”

May combine two claims.

Yanzi best illustrates this guardian persona and repeatedly reminded Duke Jing of Qi about moderation.

“The figure of Yanzi 晏子 (Master Yan, Yan Ying 嬰) best illustrates this persona.Yanzi reminds his patron, Duke Jing of Qi 齊景公 (r.553-548 BCE) repeatedly of the virtues of moderation.”

May combine two claims.

By restricting alcohol mainly to sacrifice, the Pronouncement placed non-sacrificial drinking under prohibition and taboo, perhaps being the first Chinese narrative to separate secular drinking from sacrificial use and condemn it.

“By insisting that alcohol was to be consumed primarily in the context of sacrifice, the Pronouncement relegates the use of alcohol outside sacrifice to the realm of prohibition and taboo.It may be the first narrative in Chinese history that separates secular alcohol consumption from the sacrificial use of alcohol, condemning the former.”

• cites ShangshuNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Pronouncement's first part says alcohol should be used mainly for important sacrifices, Heaven punishes indulgence, drinking is proper only when presenting sacrifice, virtue is sobriety, and celebratory drinking is allowed after duties to elders and sovereign are fulfilled.

“The first part of the speech reiterates the permissible uses of alcohol: alcohol should be used for important sacrificial offerings only; 13 Heaven invariably punishes those who indulge in alcohol; people should drink only if and when they are presenting sacrifice; virtue therefore lies in sobriety.Only when one's duties to the elderly and the sovereign have been fulfilled should celebratory”

• cites ShangshuNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The ode 'Chu ci' presents a scripted ancestral ritual: sacrificial food is offered, an invocator says spirits are satiated, and participants then feast.

“The aforementioned ode”

• cites OdesNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Others also stood out for handling ritual drinking and sensory pleasures without neglecting government duties.

“But there were others too who stood out for their ability to handle ritual drinking and sensory pleasures without being detracted from governmental duties.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The ode 'Bin zhi chu yan' begins with two stanzas describing orderly, temperate drinking during an archery ceremony and a concluding sacrifice.

“It starts with two stanzas that describe the orderly and temperate use of alcohol during an archery ceremony and a concluding sacrifice.”

• cites OdesNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Wang Chong scorned Confucius' reputation for limitless drinking, quoting that King Wen drank a thousand zhong and Confucius a hundred goblets, and calling them alcohol addicts rather than sages.

“The prevalence of this leitmotiv of the sober sage clearly irritated a critic such as Wang Chong who pours his scorn on Confucius' reputation as someone who could drink without limit:”

• cites Wang ChongNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The Confucius-Zigong exchange in the Liji is probably not historical.

“One of the most telling illustrations of the tension between ritual reverence and drinking for pleasure is preserved in an exchange, most likely apocryphal, between Confucius and his disciple Zigong 子貢 in the Liji 禮記 (Book of Rites).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The Pronouncement concludes that Shang perished through alcohol's power.

“In sum, the house of Shang is said to have perished by the powers of alcohol.”

• cites ShangshuNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Sages were said to distinguish themselves by moderation, and the sage ruler could endure frequent lengthy ritual drinking without excess.

“Unlike their wayward predecessors or superiors, sages are said to distinguish themselves through the art of moderation.The sage ruler gets through frequent and lengthy programs of ritual drinking without succumbing to excess.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The Pronouncement depicts King Zhou as alcohol-clouded, unable to offer fragrant sacrifices, and says the Shang people's drunken stench reached Heaven.

“Clouded by alcohol, King Zhou fails to offer”

• cites ShangshuNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Those accounts presented an ideal, but evidence indicates that toasting politics mattered to some people.

“These accounts however merely described an ideal, and evidence suggests that the politics of toasting were a real concern to some.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

If incompetent last rulers were clouded by alcohol or pleasures, founding kings of Shang and Zhou, helped by cooks-turned-ministers like Yi Yin and Lü Wang, were to protect the royal house and sovereign from overindulgence.

“Therefore if incompetent last rulers had their senses clouded by alcohol or were distracted by gustatory and physical pleasures, it was up to the founding kings of Shang and Zhou, assisted by cooks-turned-ministers such as Yi Yin 伊尹 and Lü Wang 吕望, to protect the royal house and safeguard their sovereign from overindulgence.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In the 81 BCE court debates, speakers argued that ancient people were exemplary and consumed wine and meat only at sacrifices.

“Unlike today, the argument went during court debates around 81 BCE, the ancients were exemplary members of society, always conscious of the fact that wine and meat should only be consumed in the context of sacrificial gatherings.41”

• cites [41] Shuowen jiezi zhu 說文解字注 [Explanation of primary signs and analysis of graphs]. Annotated by Duan Yucai 段玉裁 (1735–1815). Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1983.Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Yu's prediction that wine would cause some states to fall is included in an anecdote about the king of Liang, Wei Ying, hosting lords at Fantai.

“Yu's visionary prediction that wine would one day lead to the inevitable demise of some states is also incorporated in the following anecdote:”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Jessica Rawson observed a shift around the early ninth century BCE from Shang-style wine vessels to larger and more numerous food vessels.

“Jessica Rawson noted a shift in emphasis, around the early-ninth century BCE, from Shang style wine drinking vessels in favor of a new emphasis on food vessels that grew larger in form and numbers.”

• cites Jessica RawsonNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Controlling alcohol and unauthorized gatherings became a mark of good government linked to the Zhou golden age.

“Thus establishing control over alcohol and the unbridled or unauthorized gathering of people was enshrined as a feat of good government which, in turn, was associated with the golden age of Zhou.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Most scholars date the Pronouncement to the Western Zhou (1045-771 BCE).

“Most scholars accept that the Pronouncement dates to the Western Zhou (1045-771 BCE).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The orderly gathering described below, with companions judging character amid proper decorum, represents an ideal of good conviviality.

“The measured scene described below, where companions examine each other's character in an orderly gathering that is punctuated by proper decorum, sums up an idealized picture of conviviality at its best:”

May combine two claims.

Ritual drinking led people to examine themselves and test relations with peers, rivals, and powers beyond the world.

“Just as the handling of alcohol informed the judgement of character in the past, ritualised drinking prompted self-examination and tested one's relationship with fellow or rival, as well as with higher forces and powers beyond this world.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Rulers in the early empires who banned or regulated alcohol were also imitating exemplary acts of rulers from an idealized past.

“One could argue that when rulers in the early empires conceived of a ban on alcohol or wished to regulate its distribution and consumption through the agency of officials and ritual specialists, this was also a gesture that mimicked exemplary acts undertaken by rulers in an idealized past.”