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Cited by 10Misinformation and Its ImpactsDigital literacy in educationLiteracy, Media, and Education

Rethinking education and training to counter AI-enhanced disinformation and information manipulations in Europe: a Delphi study

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Arribas, Cristina M., Arcos, Rubén, Gertrudix, Manuel·2025·Cogent Social Sciences
DOI 10.1080/23311886.2025.2501759
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Abstract

The rise of AI-driven technologies has created new avenues for disinformation and poses a significant security threat. This study uses the Delphi method to analyse the emerging training needs and skills required to combat AI-driven disinformation. The experts emphasise that the public’s and policy makers’ understanding of AI-driven disinformation is still very fragmentary. They highlight the need for improved digital competences and skills, updated educational frameworks and continuous training through micro-credentials. In addition, the experts point out the importance of integrating non-technological skills such as geopolitical awareness and historical analysis into the digital skills framework. The findings emphasise the importance of a comprehensive, interdisciplinary approach to learning that incorporates both technical and critical thinking skills to counter the evolving landscape of disinformation. The study recommends proactive measures, including the development of early detection systems for new technologies and the implementation of flexible, modular learning opportunities, to ensure that professionals and citizens can adapt to emerging threats.

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  • Individuals are ill-equipped with the necessary knowledge to identify and react to online disinformation.

    “Among other things, this translates to individuals being illequipped with the necessary knowledge to identify and react to online disinformation (Arribas et al., 2025).”

    From Deepfakes, Democracy, and the Ethics of Synthetic Media: A Synthesis of the SOLARIS Project (2026) · cites this paper as Arribas et al., 2025

  • Social scientists have pointed to the skill-replacing threat of AI technology over its skill-enhancing potential: people's ability to develop essential skills such as critical reading and structured thinking is hindered by the possibility to delegate tasks to AI tools.

    “social scientists have pointed to the skillreplacing threat of AI technology over its skill-enhancing potential: people's ability to develop essential skills such as critical reading and structured thinking is hindered by the possibility to delegate tasks to AI tools, which makes education-related efforts appear redundant.”

    From Deepfakes, Democracy, and the Ethics of Synthetic Media: A Synthesis of the SOLARIS Project (2026) · cites this paper as Arribas et al., 2025

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Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. european committee for standardization (cen). (2018). European e-Competence Framework (e-CF): A Common European framework for ICT Professionals in all industry sectors. cen Workshop agreement (cWa) 16234-1:2018 (e). https:// tinyurl.com/5xxzaxv2 european Parliament and commission. (2006). Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 on key competences for lifelong learning. official Journal of the european Union, l394, 10-18. https:// tinyurl.com/nha6w8e3 european Union agency for cybersecurity & enisa. (2023). Foresight 2030 threats. empresa nacional de innovación, sMe, sa (enisa). https://tinyurl.com/m9jm2t3k
  2. linstone, h. a., & turoff, M. (eds.) (1975). The delphi method. Reading. addison-Wesley.
  3. saunders, l. (2017), "information literacy: What Does it Mean and Where Does it Fit in?", Matarazzo, J.M. and Pearlstein, t. (ed.) the emerald handbook of Modern information Management, emerald Publishing limited, leeds, pp. 379-408. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-78714-525-220171016 · DOI
  4. Vuorikari, r., Kluzer, s., & Punie, Y. (2022). DigComp 2.2: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens -With new ex- amples of knowledge, skills and attitudes, EUR 31006 EN. Publications office of the european Union. https://doi. org/10.2760/490274https://tinyurl.com/42yudd83 · DOI

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Authors
Arribas, C. M., Arcos, R., & Gertrudix, M.
Affiliations
  • Universidad Rey Juan Carlos (ES)
  • Universidad Rey Juan Carlos
Corresponding author
Arribas, Cristina M.
ORCID
Venue
Cogent Social Sciences
Publisher
Informa UK Limited
Published
2025-05-12
Volume
11
Issue
1
ISSN
2331-1886 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1080/23311886.2025.2501759
OpenAlex
W4410284953
Cited by
9
References
40
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 5
FWCI
15.68
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Cogent Social Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • BURJC Digital (King Juan Carlos University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Rey Juan Carlos University (501100007511)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Digital literacy in education
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Literacy, Media, and Education
Keywords
information manipulation, digital skills, micro-credentials, critical thinking skills, historical analysis, education and training needs

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