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Entropy Generation and the Survival of Protogalaxies in an Expanding Universe
Abstract
General formulae are derived for the bulk viscosity, shear viscosity, and heat transport due to radia tion, and for the damping rate of sound waves, in an imperfect relativistic fluid. These results are used to evaluate the cosmological entropy production associated with a nonvanishing mean free time of photons, neutrinos, or gravitons, and to calculate the rate of damping of protogalactic fluctuations in the period immediately prior to the recombination of hydrogen.
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“The quark nuggets evaporate as long as the temperature is above ∼ 50 MeV [99].”
From Phase Transitions in the Early and Present Universe (2006) · cites this paper as [99]
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طاهری, م. (2024) · ژورنال علمی کازمواینتل · doi:10.61450/joci.fa.v3itc4fa.184
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Marov, M. Y., & Колесниченко, А. В. (2024) · Astronomicheskii Zhurnal · doi:10.31857/s0004629924050019
Колесниченко, А. В. (2024) · Mathematica Montisnigri · doi:10.20948/mathmontis-2024-61-5
Колесниченко, А. В. (2025) · Solar System Research · doi:10.1134/s0038094624601221
“…there are no energy exchange processes determined by condition (here is the exchange entropy at the 5 A general case of the dissipative (heat-conducting, viscous, creating particles) cosmological fluid is considered from a unified covariant point of view by Weinberg (1971) and Silva et al. (2002).”
On a free Dirac–Born–Infeld interacting vacuum model
Gregoris, D. (2025) · The European Physical Journal C · doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-025-14068-2
“This is consistent with the second law of thermodynamics [73], with the bulk viscosity dark matter pressure [74,75] in (2) constituting an out-of-equilibrium contribution that in our model gets washed away at late epochs; it can be explicitly understood from [75, Eqs.”
Non-Newtonian corrections to radiative viscosity: Israel-Stewart theory as a viscosity limiter
Gavassino, L. (2025) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.111.l081306
Stationary Couette-type flows in relativistic fluids
Gavassino, L., Niekamp, P., Schlichting, S., et al. (2026) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/crvh-vwh8
Lang, K. R. (1974) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-11188-8_5
Wave and Instability in Radiative Fluids
Kato, S., & Fükue, J. (2026) · Astronomy and astrophysics library · doi:10.1007/978-981-95-1884-5_25
COSMIC BULK VISCOSITY: TWO PRESENTATIONSPreprint
Trevisani, S. R. G. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6064341
Cosmic evolution beyond the singularity: a study of viscous bounce dynamics in F(R) theory
Sharif, M., Moneer, E. M., Fatima, N., & Zotos, E. E. (2026) · The European Physical Journal C · doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-026-15302-1
Thermoelectric Conduction in General Relativity: A Causal, Stable, and Well-Posed Theory
Gavassino, L. (2026) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/b2k6-thdy
Michael, T., Kanishka, R., & Mishra, A. N. (2026) · International Journal of Modern Physics E · doi:10.1142/s0218301326500278
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Trevisani, S. R. G. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6504742
Neutrino decoupling and big bang nucleosynthesis: Window into the particle physics frontier
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Large lepton asymmetry from axion inflation and helium abundance hinted by ACT
Hu, Y., Kamada, K., & Wu, D. (2026) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2026/05/070
“Assuming a uniform fluid with constant energy density ρ and pressure p , the shear viscosity, η vis , is given by [102, 103] where τ denotes the mean free time of the plasma.”
A Thermodynamic Derivation of the Relic Abundance in Standard Model BaryogenesisPreprint
Weerasinghe, N. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6834720
Bulk viscous cosmology in curvature-matter coupled f(R,Lm) gravity
Koussour, M., El-Khair, H. M., Alfedeel, A. H. A., Muminov, S., Davletov, I., & Rayimbaev, J. (2026) · International Journal of Modern Physics A · doi:10.1142/s0217751x26501253
Role of viscous fluid in FLRW model with observational constraints
Pradhan, A., & Goswami, G. K. (2026) · Indian Journal of Physics · doi:10.1007/s12648-026-04115-3
The Geometric Invariant of Meta-Galactic Density: A Path to the Physical Nature of πPreprint
Shlyapik, A. (2026) · doi:10.24108/preprints-3115688
Afzal, M., Ishaq, M., Ramzan, M., et al. (2026) · ZAMM ‐ Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics / Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik · doi:10.1002/zamm.70497
“Weinberg [ 34 ] studied imperfect relativistic fluid dynamics and provided important new understandings of phenomena like radiation-induced heat transfer, bulk viscosity, and shear viscosity.”
Anonymous, & Mathew, T. K. (2026) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/47b2-8mpw
The matter creation cosmology: A kinetic approach
Trevisani, S. R. G. (2026) · Physics Letters A · doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2026.132179
Accelerated Universe with Bulk Viscous Fluid in f(R, T) Gravity
Tiwari, R. K., Beesham, A., & Pal, M. (2026) · Journal of Applied Mathematics and Physics · doi:10.4236/jamp.2026.149184
Nonapplicability of the viscous approximation method in homogeneous cosmological models
Ostrowski, M. (1984) · Astrophysics and Space Science · doi:10.1007/bf00651079
GROOT, S. R. D. (1973) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-8336-6_21
General Discussion and Short Contribution
Longair, M. S. (1974) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-2220-0_24
Metadata
- Authors
- Weinberg, S.
- Corresponding author
- Weinberg, Steven
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 1971-09
- Volume
- 168
- Pages
- 175
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2006497728
- Cited by
- 734
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 33 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 32 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 8.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Cosmology and Gravitation Theories
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Galaxies: Formation, Evolution, Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Dark Matter and Cosmic Phenomena
- Keywords
- entropy production, protogalaxies, cosmic expansion, bulk viscosity, shear viscosity, radiative heat transport, acoustic damping, mean free time, photon mean free path, neutrino mean free path, hydrogen recombination
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