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Physical Processes Shaping Gamma‐Ray Burst X‐Ray Afterglow Light Curves: Theoretical Implications from the Swift X‐Ray Telescope Observations
Open accessAbstract
With the successful launch of the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Explorer, a rich trove of early X-ray afterglow data has been collected by its onboard X-Ray Telescope (XRT). Some interesting features are emerging, including a distinct rapidly decaying component preceding the conventional afterglow component in many sources, a shallow decay component before the more "normal" decay component observed in a good fraction of GRBs, and X-ray flares in nearly half of the afterglows. In this paper we systematically analyze the possible physical processes that shape the properties of the early X-ray afterglow light curves and use the data to constrain various models. We suggest that the steep decay component is consistent with the tail emission of the prompt gamma-ray bursts and/or the X-ray flares. This provides strong evidence that the prompt emission and afterglow emission are likely two distinct components, supporting the internal origin of the GRB prompt emission. The shallow decay segment observed in a group of GRBs suggests that very likely the forward shock keeps being refreshed for some time. This might be caused by either a long-lived central engine, or a wide distribution of the shell Lorentz factors, or else possibly the deceleration of a Poynting flux-dominated flow. X-ray flares suggest that the GRB central engine is very likely still active after the prompt gamma-ray emission is over, but with a reduced activity at later times. In some cases, the central engine activity even extends to days after the burst triggers. Analyses of early X-ray afterglow data reveal that GRBs are indeed highly relativistic events and that early afterglow data of many bursts, starting from the beginning of the XRT observations, are consistent with the afterglow emission from an ISM environment.
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“Detection and measurement of gamma-ray burst afterglows and transients ( e.g., Zhang & Mészáros 2004; Zhang et al. 2006; Kann et al. 2010 ) to high redshift ( ∼ 7.5 )”
From LSST: From Science Drivers to Reference Design and Anticipated Data Products (2019) · cites this paper as Zhang et al. 2006
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LSST: From Science Drivers to Reference Design and Anticipated Data Products
Ivezić, Ž., Kahn, S. M., Tyson, J. A., Abel, B., Acosta, E., Allsman, R., Alonso, D., AlSayyad, Y., Anderson, S. F., Andrew, J., et al. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab042c · Cited by 4,357
“There are many projects that LSST data products will enable: • Detection and measurement of gamma-ray burst afterglows and transients (e.g., Zhang & Mészáros 2004; Zhang et al. 2006; Kann et al. 2010) to high redshift (∼7.5).”
BackgroundInfluentialMethods and results of an automatic analysis of a complete sample of Swift -XRT observations of GRBs
Evans, P. A., Beardmore, A. P., Page, K. L., Osborne, J. P., O'Brien, P. T., Willingale, R., Starling, R. L. C., Burrows, D. N., Godet, O., Vetere, L., et al. (2009) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.14913.x · Cited by 1,805
Self-citationThe physics of gamma-ray bursts & relativistic jets
Kumar, P., & Zhang, B. (2014) · Physics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2014.09.008 · Cited by 1,042
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BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationEvidence for a Canonical Gamma‐Ray Burst Afterglow Light Curve in the Swift XRT Data
Nousek, J. A., Kouveliotou, C., Grupe, D., Page, K. L., Granot, J., Ramirez-Ruiz, E., Patel, S., Burrows, D. N., Mangano, V., Barthelmy, S. D., et al. (2006) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/500724 · Cited by 886
Self-citationZhang, B., & Yan, H. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/726/2/90 · Cited by 823
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Gamma-Ray Bursts in theSwiftEra
Gehrels, N., Ramirez-Ruiz, E., & Fox, D. B. (2009) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.46.060407.145147 · Cited by 610
Self-citationFong, W., Berger, E., Margutti, R., & Zauderer, B. A. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/815/2/102 · Cited by 533
“…Xray afterglow light curves are often subject to steep decays, plateaus, or flares which may contaminate the afterglow emission (Nousek et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006; Margutti et al. 2011, 2013), we only utilize X-ray data atδt & 1000 s, when bursts have typically settled into the power-law…”
MethodSignatures of magnetar central engines in short GRB light curves
Rowlinson, A., O'Brien, P. T., Metzger, B. D., Tanvir, N. R., & Levan, A. J. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sts683 · Cited by 498
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Short Gamma‐Ray Bursts with Extended Emission
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“Instead, these pulses might be analogous to the X-ray flares observed accompanying the prompt portions of afterglows as revealed by Swift’s XRT, and attributed to central engine activity (Zhang et al. 2005).”
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TUROLLA, R., Zane, S., & Watts, A. L. (2015) · Reports on Progress in Physics · doi:10.1088/0034-4885/78/11/116901 · Cited by 448
“…a significant fraction of the Swift long GRBs exhibit late flares and plateau phases in the lightcurve that provide evidence for longevity and on-going activity of the central engine (see e.g. Nousek et al 2006, Zhang et al 2006, Curran et al 2008, Margutti et al 2010, Bernardini et al 2011b).”
BackgroundZhang, B., Zhang, B., Virgili, F. J., Liang, E., Kann, D. A., Wu, X.-F., Daniel Proga, A., Lv, H.-J., Toma, K., Mészáros, P., et al. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/703/2/1696 · Cited by 438
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O'Brien, P. T., Willingale, R., Osborne, J. P., Goad, M. R., Page, K. L., Vaughan, S., Rol, E., Beardmore, A. P., Godet, O., Hurkett, C. P., et al. (2006) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/505457 · Cited by 424
“Analysis of GRB samples from the early phase of the Swift mission (Nousek et al. 2006) confirm that this pattern of a rapidly decaying light curve followed by a late emission hump is common.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationKann, D. A., Klose, S., Zhang, B., Malesani, D., Nakar, E., Pozanenko, A., Wilson, A. C., Butler, N. R., Jakobsson, P., Schulze, S., et al. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/720/2/1513 · Cited by 363
“…long-term energy injection similar to what may cause the shallow decay/plateau phase of the “canonical” X-ray afterglow (Nousek et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006; Panaitescu et al. 2006a) occurs, although in most cases the plateau phase in X-rays and the following break to a “classical”…”
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Zhang, B. (2007) · 天文和天体物理学研究：英文版 · doi:10.1088/1009-9271/7/1/01 · Cited by 328
Self-citationJET BREAKS AND ENERGETICS OF Swift GAMMA-RAY BURST X-RAY AFTERGLOWS
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Self-citationSwiftObservations of GRB 070110: An Extraordinary X‐Ray Afterglow Powered by the Central Engine
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Self-citationA NEW POPULATION OF ULTRA-LONG DURATION GAMMA-RAY BURSTS
Levan, A. J., Tanvir, N. R., Starling, R. L. C., Wiersema, K., Page, K. L., Perley, D. A., Schulze, S., Wynn, G. A., Chornock, R., Hjorth, J., et al. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/781/1/13 · Cited by 293
“In this model the rapid variability is not uncommon in GRB prompt emission, and the steep decay can be naturally interpreted as emission from high latitudes (Zhang et al. 2006).”
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Zhang, B., Liang, E., Page, K. L., Grupe, D., Zhang, B., Barthelmy, S. D., Burrows, D. N., Campana, S., Chincarini, G. L., Gehrels, N. A., et al. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/510110 · Cited by 285
Self-citationA Comprehensive Analysis ofSwiftXRT Data. II. Diverse Physical Origins of the Shallow Decay Segment
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Gao, H., Lei, W., Zou, Y.-C., Wu, X.-F., & Zhang, B. (2013) · New Astronomy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.newar.2013.10.001 · Cited by 267
“…or more additional assumptions/parameters, still have clear testable predictions regarding the afterglow decaying index α, the spectral index β, and the relation between them (the so-called “closure relations”) (e.g. Zhang and Mészáros, 2004; Zhang et al., 2006, for a collection of these models).”
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Yang, J., Ai, S., Zhang, B., Zhang, B., Liu, Z.-K., Wang, X., Yang, Y.-H., Yin, Y.-H. I., Li, Y., & Lü, H.-J. (2022) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05403-8 · Cited by 255
Self-citationChincarini, G. L., Moretti, A., Romano, P., Falcone, A., Morris, D. C., Racusin, J. L., Campana, S., Covino, S., Guidorzi, C., Tagliaferri, G., et al. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/521591 · Cited by 254
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Romano, P., Campana, S., Chincarini, G. L., Cummings, J. R., Cusumano, G., Holland, S. T., Mangano, V., Mineo, T., Page, K. L., Pal'Shin, V., et al. (2006) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20065071 · Cited by 252
Self-citationA Decade of Gamma-Ray Bursts Observed by Fermi-LAT: The Second GRB Catalog
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Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglows in the Multimessenger Era: Numerical Models and Closure Relations
Ryan, G., van Eerten, H., Piro, L., & Troja, E. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab93cf · Cited by 247
The unusual X-ray emission of the short Swift GRB 090515: evidence for the formation of a magnetar?
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“Nousek et al. (2006) and Zhang et al. (2006) described the ‘canonical GRB light curve’ as three stages comprising a steep decline followed by a shallower decay and then a final decay phase.”
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“Compilations of X-ray and optical light curves from the Swift satellite have revealed complex but canonical light curve behaviors (Nousek et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006; Melandri et al. 2008; Roming et al. 2009; Evans et al. 2009).”
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Self-citationMass fall-back and accretion in the central engine of gamma-ray bursts
Kumar, P., Narayan, R., & Johnson, J. L. (2008) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13493.x · Cited by 215
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Self-citationA TEST OF THE MILLISECOND MAGNETAR CENTRAL ENGINE MODEL OF GAMMA-RAY BURSTS WITHSWIFTDATA
Lü, H.-J., & Zhang, B. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/785/1/74 · Cited by 196
Self-citationFalcone, A. D., Morris, D., Racusin, J., Chincarini, G., Moretti, A., Romano, P., Burrows, D. N., Pagani, C., Stroh, M., Grupe, D., et al. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/523296 · Cited by 195
“There have been several papers studying individual GRBswith X-ray flares (Burrows et al. 2005b; Falcone et al. 2006; Romano et al. 2006; Pagani et al. 2006; Cusumano et al. 2007; Zhang et al. 2006; Morris et al. 2007; Goad et al. 2007; Krimm et al. 2007).”
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The FirstSwiftBAT Gamma‐Ray Burst Catalog
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Self-citationMAGNETIC FIELDS IN RELATIVISTIC COLLISIONLESS SHOCKS
Santana, R., Duran, R. B., & Kumar, P. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/785/1/29 · Cited by 187
“The value of p and the density profile of the surrounding medium (whether we have a s = 0 or s = 2 medium) can be determined from observations of the afterglow spectral decay and temporal decay of the light curve with the so-called “closure” relations (e.g. Zhang et al. 2006).”
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The late time evolution of gamma-ray bursts: ending hyperaccretion and producing flares
Daniel Proga, A., & Zhang, B. (2006) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2006.00189.x · Cited by 185
“The internal model not only offers a natural interpretation of the rapid rise and decay behaviors of the flares, but also demands a very small energy budget (Zhang et al. 2005).”
Self-citationFallback accretion in the aftermath of a compact binary merger
Rosswog, S. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2007.00284.x · Cited by 182
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Mirabal, N., Halpern, J. P., An, D., Thorstensen, J. R., & Terndrup, D. M. (2006) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/505177 · Cited by 181
Gamma-ray bursts afterglows with energy injection from a spinning down neutron star
Dall’Osso, S., Stratta, G., Guetta, D., Covino, S., Cesare, G. D., & Stella, L. (2010) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014168 · Cited by 176
The X-ray afterglow flat segment in short GRB 051221A: Energy injection from a millisecond magnetar?
Fan, Y.-Z., & Xu, D. (2006) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2006.00217.x · Cited by 176
Self-citationUnveiling the origin of X-ray flares in gamma-ray bursts
Chincarini, G., Mao, J., Margutti, R., Bernardini, M. G., Guidorzi, C., Pasotti, F., Giannios, D., Valle, M. D., Moretti, A., Romano, P., et al. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17037.x · Cited by 174
A new method for estimating the bolometric properties of Ibc supernovae
Cano, Z. (2013) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1048 · Cited by 171
Lyons, N., O'Brien, P. T., Zhang, B., Willingale, R., Troja, E., & Starling, R. L. C. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15538.x · Cited by 169
Self-citationZhang, B., Liang, E., & Zhang, B. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/519548 · Cited by 162
“In this scenario, the decay is strictly a power law with a slope ¼ (2þ ) if the time zero point is set to the beginning of the rising segment of the light curve (Zhang et al. 2006; see Huang et al. [2002] for the discussion of time zero point in a different context).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationLei, W., Zhang, B., & Liang, E. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/765/2/125 · Cited by 162
Self-citationHOW BAD OR GOOD ARE THE EXTERNAL FORWARD SHOCK AFTERGLOW MODELS OF GAMMA-RAY BURSTS?
Wang, X.-G., Zhang, B., Liang, E.-W., Gao, H., Li, L., Deng, C.-M., Qin, S.-M., Tang, Q.-W., Kann, D. A., Ryde, F., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.1088/0067-0049/219/1/9 · Cited by 162
Self-citationJet Breaks in Short Gamma‐Ray Bursts. II. The Collimated Afterglow of GRB 051221A
Burrows, D. N., Grupe, D., Capalbi, M., Panaitescu, A., Patel, S., Kouveliotou, C., Zhang, B., Mészáros, P., Chincarini, G. L., Gehrels, N., et al. (2006) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/508740 · Cited by 161
Self-citationXie, X., Zrake, J., & MacFadyen, A. I. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aacf9c · Cited by 155
Neutrino-dominated accretion flows as the central engine of gamma-ray bursts
Liu, T., Gu, W., & Zhang, B. (2017) · New Astronomy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.newar.2017.07.001 · Cited by 154
Self-citationNuclear equation of state from observations of short gamma-ray burst remnants
Lasky, P. D., Haskell, B., Ravi, V., Howell, E. J., & Coward, D. M. (2014) · Physical review. D. Particles, fields, gravitation, and cosmology/Physical review. D. Particles and fields · doi:10.1103/physrevd.89.047302 · Cited by 153
Genet, F., Daigne, F., & Mochkovitch, R. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12243.x · Cited by 150
Li, L., Liang, E., Tang, Q.-W., Chen, J., Xi, S.-Q., Lü, H.-J., Gao, H., Zhang, B., Zhang, J., Yi, S.-X., et al. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/758/1/27 · Cited by 148
Self-citationA long-lived neutron star merger remnant in GW170817: constraints and clues from X-ray observations
Piro, L., Troja, E., Zhang, B., Ryan, G., van Eerten, H., Ricci, R., Wieringa, M. H., Tiengo, A., Butler, N., Cenko, S. B., et al. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty3047 · Cited by 148
“(11), in the spectral regime below νc (where the X-rays seem to lie in), the forward shock flux scales as (Zhang & Mészáros 2001; Zhang et al. 2006) Fν ∝ t (1−q)− (p−1)(2+q ) 4 , (12) which is valid for q ≤ 1.”
BackgroundSelf-citationDiscovery and confirmation of the shortest gamma-ray burst from a collapsar
Ahumada, T., Singer, L. P., Anand, S., Coughlin, M. W., Kasliwal, M. M., Ryan, G., Andreoni, I., Cenko, S. B., Fremling, C., Kumar, H., et al. (2021) · Nature Astronomy · doi:10.1038/s41550-021-01428-7 · Cited by 148
THE COLLIMATION AND ENERGETICS OF THE BRIGHTESTSWIFTGAMMA-RAY BURSTS
Cenko, S. B., Frail, D. A., Harrison, F., Kulkarni, S. R., Ehud Nakar, A., Chandra, P., Butler, N., Fox, D. B., Gal‐Yam, A., Kasliwal, M. M., et al. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/711/2/641 · Cited by 148
Self-citationImplications of the early X-ray afterglow light curves of Swift gamma-ray bursts
Granot, J., Königl, A., & Piran, T. (2006) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2006.10621.x · Cited by 145
Oates, S. R., Page, M. J., Schady, P., de Pasquale, M., Koch, T. S., Breeveld, A. A., Brown, P. J., Chester, M., Holland, S. T., Hoversten, E. A., et al. (2009) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.14544.x · Cited by 143
Self-citationRowlinson, A., Gompertz, B. P., Dainotti, M. G., O'Brien, P. T., Wijers, R. A. M. J., & van der Horst, A. J. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1277 · Cited by 143
“…show a great diversity in their prompt emission lightcurves and a broad range of isotropic energies (Eiso), whilst sharing common features in their X-ray afterglow lightcurves leading to the identification of a canonical X-ray lightcurve (O’Brien et al. 2006; Nousek et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006).”
BackgroundThe extinction curves of star-forming regions fromz = 0.1 to 6.7 using GRB afterglow spectroscopy
Zafar, T., Watson, D. J., Fynbo, J. P. U., Malesani, D. B., Jakobsson, P., & Postigo, A. D. U. (2011) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201116663 · Cited by 140
Physics of Gamma-Ray Bursts Prompt Emission
Pe’er, A. (2015) · Advances in Astronomy · doi:10.1155/2015/907321 · Cited by 138
“Observationally, one of the key discoveries of the Swift satellite is the existence of a long lasting “plateau” seen in the the early afterglow of GRBs at the X-ray band [227, 245, 246].”
BackgroundZhang, B. (2011) · Comptes Rendus Physique · doi:10.1016/j.crhy.2011.03.004 · Cited by 138
Self-citationThe nature of the Diffuse Gamma-Ray Background
Fornasa, M., & Sánchez-Conde, M. Á. (2015) · Physics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2015.09.002 · Cited by 130
High energy neutrino early afterglows from gamma-ray bursts revisited
Murase, K. (2007) · Physical review. D. Particles, fields, gravitation, and cosmology/Physical review. D. Particles and fields · doi:10.1103/physrevd.76.123001 · Cited by 135
Lee, W. H., Ramirez-Ruiz, E., & López-Cámara, D. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/699/2/l93 · Cited by 133
A JET BREAK IN THE X-RAY LIGHT CURVE OF SHORT GRB 111020A: IMPLICATIONS FOR ENERGETICS AND RATES
Fong, W., Berger, E., Margutti, R., Zauderer, B. A., Troja, E., Czekala, I., Chornock, R., Gehrels, N., Sakamoto, T., Fox, D. B., et al. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/756/2/189 · Cited by 131
Self-citationIoka, K., Toma, K., Yamazaki, R., & Nakamura, T. (2006) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20064939 · Cited by 131
High-energy afterglow emission from gamma-ray bursts
Fan, Y.-Z., Piran, T., Narayan, R., & Wei, D.-M. (2008) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12765.x · Cited by 131
Self-citationSwift observations of GRB 060614: an anomalous burst with a well behaved afterglow
Mangano, V., Holland, S. T., Malesani, D. B., Troja, E., Chincarini, G. L., Zhang, B., Parola, V. L., Brown, P. J., Burrows, D. N., Campana, S., et al. (2007) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20077232 · Cited by 130
Self-citationDust and gas in the local environments of gamma-ray bursts
Schady, P., Mason, K. O., Page, M. J., de Pasquale, M., Morris, D. C., Romano, P., Roming, P. W. A., Immler, S., & Berk, D. E. V. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11592.x · Cited by 130
Gehrels, N., & Mészáros, P. (2012) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1216793 · Cited by 128
Self-citationQin, Y., Liang, E., Liang, Y.-F., Yi, S.-X., Lin, L., Zhang, B., Zhang, J., Lü, H.-J., Lu, R.-J., Lü, L., et al. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/763/1/15 · Cited by 127
Self-citationLiang, E., Li, L., Gao, H., Zhang, B., Liang, Y.-F., Wu, X.-F., Yi, S.-X., Dai, Z.-G., Tang, Q.-W., Chen, J., et al. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/774/1/13 · Cited by 126
Self-citationShort-living Supermassive Magnetar Model for the Early X-ray Flares Following Short GRBs
Gao, W.-H., & Fan, Y.-Z. (2006) · 天文和天体物理学研究：英文版 · doi:10.1088/1009-9271/6/5/01 · Cited by 124
Self-citationX‐Ray Hardness Evolution in GRB Afterglows and Flares: Late‐Time GRB Activity withoutNHVariations
Butler, N., & Kocevski, D. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/518023 · Cited by 124
Zhang, B.-B., Zhang, B., Murase, K., Connaughton, V., & Briggs, M. S. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/787/1/66 · Cited by 123
Self-citationCorrelations of Prompt and Afterglow Emission inSwiftLong and Short Gamma‐Ray Bursts
Gehrels, N., Barthelmy, S. D., Burrows, D. N., Cannizzo, J. K., Chincarini, G., Fenimore, E., Kouveliotou, C., O'Brien, P. T., Palmer, D. M., Racusin, J., et al. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/592766 · Cited by 121
“TheSwift X-ray lightcurves have been found typically to have complex shapes (Nousek et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2005) often including a poorly understood “plateau phase”; the use of flux at 11 hr in most cases avoids sampling during the plateau phase and gives a measure of the true burst afterglow.”
BackgroundSelf-citationLORENTZ-FACTOR–ISOTROPIC-LUMINOSITY/ENERGY CORRELATIONS OF GAMMA-RAY BURSTS AND THEIR INTERPRETATION
Lü, J., Zou, Y.-C., Lei, W., Zhang, B., Wu, Q., Wang, D.-X., Liang, E., & Lü, H.-J. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/751/1/49 · Cited by 120
Self-citationConstraints on Type Ib/c Supernovae and Gamma‐Ray Burst Progenitors
Fryer, C. L., Mazzali, P. A., Prochaska, J. X., Cappellaro, E., Panaitescu, A., Berger, E., van Putten, M. H. P. M., van den Heuvel, E. P. J., Young, P. A., Hungerford, A., et al. (2007) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1086/523768 · Cited by 119
“The X-ray light curves of Swift afterglows indicate that there may be a sustained energy injection in the blast wave for hours after the burst (Nousek et al. 2006; Panaitescu et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006).”
BackgroundDARK BURSTS IN THESWIFTERA: THE PALOMAR 60 INCH-SWIFTEARLY OPTICAL AFTERGLOW CATALOG
Cenko, S. B., Kelemen, J., Harrison, F., Fox, D. B., Kulkarni, S. R., Kasliwal, M. M., Ofek, E. O., Rau, A., Gal‐Yam, A., Frail, D. A., et al. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/693/2/1484 · Cited by 119
A thousand days after the merger: Continued X-ray emission from GW170817
Troja, E., van Eerten, H., Zhang, B., Ryan, G., Piro, L., Ricci, R., O’Connor, B., Wieringa, M. H., Cenko, S. B., & Sakamoto, T. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2626 · Cited by 118
Self-citationProperties of the Extremely Energetic GRB 221009A from Konus-WIND and SRG/ART-XC Observations
Frederiks, D. D., Свинкин, Д. С., Lysenko, A., Molkov, S., Tsvetkova, A. E., Уланов, М. В., Ridnaia, A. V., Lutovinov, A. A., Lapshov, I. Y., Tkachenko, A. Y., et al. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acd1eb · Cited by 117
“…that the use of T0, corresponding to the early and relatively weak precursor, as a zero time point (t0) of the bright afterglow can barely be justified, and the decay slope measured at times not much larger than T90 could be very sensitive to the assumed t0 (the “t0 effect”; Zhang et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMcBreen, S., Kruehler, T., Rau, A., Greiner, J., Kann, D. A., Savaglio, S., Afonso, P., Clemens, C., Filgas, R., Klose, S., et al. (2010) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200913734 · Cited by 117
GRB 221009A: Discovery of an Exceptionally Rare Nearby and Energetic Gamma-Ray Burst
Williams, M. A., Kennea, J. A., Dichiara, S., Kobayashi, K., Iwakiri, W., Beardmore, A. P., Evans, P. A., Heinz, S., Lien, A. Y., Oates, S. R., et al. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/acbcd1 · Cited by 115
“The initial MAXI detection at T0+ 2.5 ks clearly indicates a shallower decay at early times (T0+ 3.3 ks), while a late-time excess (T0+ 2 Ms) may indicate some energy injection (e.g., Zhang et al. 2006), or alternatively could be due to contamination from, e.g., an unrelated foreground object.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-organized criticality in X-ray flares of gamma-ray-burst afterglows
Wang, F. Y., & Dai, Z.-G. (2013) · Nature Physics · doi:10.1038/nphys2670 · Cited by 115
Grupe, D., Gronwall, C. A., Wang, X., Roming, P. W. A., Cummings, J., Zhang, B., Mészáros, P., Trigo, M. D., O'Brien, P. T., Page, K. L., et al. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/517868 · Cited by 113
Self-citationModel-Dependent High-Energy Neutrino Flux from Gamma-Ray Bursts
Zhang, B., & Kumar, P. (2013) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.110.121101 · Cited by 113
Self-citationLOOKING INTO THE FIREBALL: ROTSE-III AND SWIFT OBSERVATIONS OF EARLY GAMMA-RAY BURST AFTERGLOWS
Rykoff, E. S., Aharonian, F., Akerlof, C. W., Ashley, M. C. B., Barthelmy, S. D., Flewelling, H., Gehrels, N., Göğüş, E., Güver, T., Kızıloğlu, U., et al. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/702/1/489 · Cited by 110
Self-citationShort gamma-ray bursts: A review
D’Avanzo, P. (2015) · Journal of High Energy Astrophysics · doi:10.1016/j.jheap.2015.07.002 · Cited by 109
Metadata
- Authors
- Zhang, B., Fan, Y. Z., Dyks, J., Kobayashi, S., Meszaros, P., Burrows, D. N., Nousek, J. A., & Gehrels, N.
- Affiliations
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas (US)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2006-05
- Volume
- 642
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 354-370
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2078391322
- Cited by
- 1,079
- References
- 155
- Citations by year
- 2026: 46 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 52 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 50 · 2013: 52 · 2012: 47
- FWCI
- 51.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0114375, 0307376)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NAS5-00136)
- University of Pennsylvania
- Pennsylvania State University (NAS5-00136)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Gamma-ray bursts and supernovae
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Astrophysics and Cosmic Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- gamma-ray bursts, X-ray afterglow, afterglow light curves, Swift X-ray Telescope, X-ray flares, prompt gamma-ray emission, central engine, forward shock, relativistic outflows, Poynting flux, interstellar medium, afterglow decay
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