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Physical Processes Shaping Gamma‐Ray Burst X‐Ray Afterglow Light Curves: Theoretical Implications from the Swift X‐Ray Telescope Observations
Open accessAbstract
With the successful launch of the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Explorer, a rich trove of early X-ray afterglow data has been collected by its onboard X-Ray Telescope (XRT). Some interesting features are emerging, including a distinct rapidly decaying component preceding the conventional afterglow component in many sources, a shallow decay component before the more "normal" decay component observed in a good fraction of GRBs, and X-ray flares in nearly half of the afterglows. In this paper we systematically analyze the possible physical processes that shape the properties of the early X-ray afterglow light curves and use the data to constrain various models. We suggest that the steep decay component is consistent with the tail emission of the prompt gamma-ray bursts and/or the X-ray flares. This provides strong evidence that the prompt emission and afterglow emission are likely two distinct components, supporting the internal origin of the GRB prompt emission. The shallow decay segment observed in a group of GRBs suggests that very likely the forward shock keeps being refreshed for some time. This might be caused by either a long-lived central engine, or a wide distribution of the shell Lorentz factors, or else possibly the deceleration of a Poynting flux-dominated flow. X-ray flares suggest that the GRB central engine is very likely still active after the prompt gamma-ray emission is over, but with a reduced activity at later times. In some cases, the central engine activity even extends to days after the burst triggers. Analyses of early X-ray afterglow data reveal that GRBs are indeed highly relativistic events and that early afterglow data of many bursts, starting from the beginning of the XRT observations, are consistent with the afterglow emission from an ISM environment.
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“Detection and measurement of gamma-ray burst afterglows and transients ( e.g., Zhang & Mészáros 2004; Zhang et al. 2006; Kann et al. 2010 ) to high redshift ( ∼ 7.5 )”
From LSST: From Science Drivers to Reference Design and Anticipated Data Products (2019) · cites this paper as Zhang et al. 2006
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BackgroundA Roadmap to Gamma-Ray Bursts: New Developments and Applications to Cosmology
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“The average over several collisions leads to a low global efficiency of 1-10% [81,82], which contrasts with the much higher efficiency ∼ 50% inferred from afterglow measurements [31,33].”
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Self-citationMergers of Black Hole–Neutron Star Binaries. I. Methods and First Results
Rantsiou, E., Kobayashi, S., Laguna, P., & Rasio, F. A. (2008) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/587858 · Cited by 64
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Abdalla, H., Abramowski, A., Aharonian, F., Benkhali, F. A., Angüner, E. O., Arakawa, M., Arrieta, M., Aubert, P., Backes, M., Balzer, A., et al. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa97d2 · Cited by 63
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Self-citationConstraints on millisecond magnetars as the engines of prompt emission in gamma-ray bursts
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Dainotti, M. G., Sarracino, G., & Capozzıello, S. (2022) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan · doi:10.1093/pasj/psac057 · Cited by 54
“…from the central engine, (Paczynski & Rhoads 1993; Mészáros & Rees 1997; Wijers et al. 1997; Piran 1998; Sari et al. 1998; Zou et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2006; Granot & Piran 2012; Gao et al. 2013; Yi et al. 2013) or with the luminosity generated by the spin-down of a magnetar (Thompson…”
BackgroundProbing the nature of high-z short GRB 090426 with its early optical and X-ray afterglows
Xin, L. P., Liang, E., Wei, J., Zhang, B., Lv, H.-J., Zheng, W., Urata, Y., Im, M., Wang, J., Qiu, Y., et al. (2010) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17419.x · Cited by 54
Self-citationVergani, S. D., Flores, H., Covino, S., Fugazza, D. P., Gorosabel, J., Levan, A. J., Puech, M., Salvaterra, R., Tello, J. C., Postigo, A. D. U., et al. (2011) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117726 · Cited by 54
RUFFINI, R. J., Wang, Y., Aimuratov, Y., de Almeida, U. B., Becerra, L., Bianco, C. L., Chen, Y., Karlica, M., Kovacevic, M., Li, L., et al. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa9e8b · Cited by 54
“By analyzing the light curve of some long GRBs, including the data in the “8 hr gap” of BeppoSAX, Nousek et al. (2006) and Zhang et al. (2006) discovered three power-law segments in the XRT flux light curves of some long GRBs.”
Black Hole Hyperaccretion Inflow–Outflow Model. I. Long and Ultra-long Gamma-Ray Bursts
Liu, T., Song, C.-Y., Zhang, B., Gu, W.-M., & Heger, A. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa9e4f · Cited by 54
“…is consistent with the observations of early X-ray afterglows that show extended central engine activities that define an effective burst duration peaking at a few hundred seconds (e.g., Burrows et al. 2005; Liang et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006; Luo et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2014; Mu et al. 2016).”
ResultSelf-citationFirst ALMA Light Curve Constrains Refreshed Reverse Shocks and Jet Magnetization in GRB 161219B
Laskar, T., Alexander, K. D., Berger, E., Guidorzi, C., Margutti, R., Fong, W., Kilpatrick, C. D., Milne, P., Drout, M. R., Mundell, C. G., et al. (2018) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aacbcc · Cited by 54
“…radius, and post-shock magnetic field all evolve more slowly than the standard relativistic solution (Blandford & McKee 1976; Sari & Mészáros 2000; Zhang et al. 2006), t q k k k s k R t q k s s k B t q k kq k ks k s k ln ln 2 2 4 3 7 , ln ln 2 4 1 7 2 , ln ln 2 2 4 6 2 7 2 , 8 ¶ G ¶ =- + - - = -…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationA wind environment and Lorentz factors of tens explain gamma-ray bursts X-ray plateau
Dereli, H., Pe’er, A., Ryde, F., Oates, S. R., Zhang, B., & Dainotti, M. G. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-32881-1 · Cited by 53
Self-citationLong-lived PeV–EeV neutrinos from gamma-ray burst blastwave
Razzaque, S. (2013) · Physical review. D. Particles, fields, gravitation, and cosmology/Physical review. D. Particles and fields · doi:10.1103/physrevd.88.103003 · Cited by 53
Self-similar relativistic blast waves with energy injection
van Eerten, H. (2014) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1025 · Cited by 53
“These plateaus are commonly attributed to prolonged injection of energy (see e.g. Nousek et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006), which can take different forms, such as ejecta with a range of velocities catching up with the shock front (e.g. Panaitescu, Meszaros & Rees 1998; Rees & Meszaros 1998; Sari &…”
BackgroundInfluentialA MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF GAMMA-RAY BURST EARLY-OPTICAL AFTERGLOWS
Gao, H., Wang, X.-G., Mészáros, P., & Zhang, B. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/810/2/160 · Cited by 53
“…et al. 2006; Nousek et al. 2006; O’Brien et al. 2006; Evans et al. 2009), which however are still acommodated within the standard framework, provided some additional physical processes are invoked self-consistently, such as a late central engine activity (Zhang et al. 2006; Nousek et al. 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationFermi and Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglow Population Studies
Racusin, J. L., Oates, S. R., Schady, P., Burrows, D. N., de Pasquale, M., Donato, D., Gehrels, N., Koch, S., McEnery, J., Piran, T., et al. (2011) · NASA STI Repository (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1106.2469 · Cited by 53
“Typically this is the decay index in the normal forward shock phase (post-plateau, pre-jet break) in the X-ray light curves (Zhang et al. 2006; Nousek et al. 2006; Racusin et al. 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationExtreme properties of GRB 061007: a highly energetic or a highly collimated burst?
Schady, P., de Pasquale, M., Page, M. J., Vetere, L., Pandey, S. B., Wang, X. Y., Cummings, J. R., Zhang, B., Zane, S., Breeveld, A. A., et al. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12138.x · Cited by 53
Self-citationDai, X., Halpern, J. P., Morgan, N. D., Armstrong, E., Mirabal, N., Haislip, J., Reichart, D. E., & Stanek, K. Z. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/510774 · Cited by 52
Jet breaks in the X-ray light-curves of Swift gamma-ray burst afterglows
Panaitescu, A. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12084.x · Cited by 52
Sarin, N., Lasky, P. D., & Ashton, G. (2020) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.101.063021 · Cited by 51
Dainotti, M. G., Young, S., Li, L., Levine, D., Kalinowski, K. K., Kann, D. A., Tran, B., Zambrano-Tapia, L., Zambrano-Tapia, A., Cenko, S. B., et al. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/ac7c64 · Cited by 51
“Observations of the X-ray afterglows performed by the Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory (Swift hereafter) revealed the presence of an X-ray plateau (O’Brien et al. 2006; Nousek et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006; Sakamoto et al. 2007; Evans et al. 2009).”
BackgroundCOLLAPSAR ACCRETION AND THE GAMMA-RAY BURST X-RAY LIGHT CURVE
Lindner, C. C., Milosavljević, M., Couch, S. M., & Kumar, P. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/713/2/800 · Cited by 51
The X-ray afterglow of the short gamma ray burst 050724
Campana, S., Tagliaferri, G., Lazzati, D., Chincarini, G. L., Covino, S., Page, K. L., Romano, P., Moretti, A., Cusumano, G., Mangano, V., et al. (2006) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20064856/pdf · Cited by 51
Self-citationSwift gamma-ray burst afterglows and the forward-shock model
Panaitescu, A. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11956.x · Cited by 50
van Eerten, H., & MacFadyen, A. I. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/767/2/141 · Cited by 50
“Alternatively, the jet break might be hidden from view by an additional physical process, such as prolonged injection of energy into the blast wave (se e.g. Nousek et al. 2006; Panaitescu et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006b; Panaitescu & Vestrand 2012).”
BackgroundUNUSUAL CENTRAL ENGINE ACTIVITY IN THE DOUBLE BURST GRB 110709B
Zhang, B., Burrows, D. N., Zhang, B., Mészáros, P., Wang, X., Stratta, G., D'Elia, V., Frederiks, D. D., Golenetskii, S. V., Cummings, J., et al. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/748/2/132 · Cited by 50
Self-citationModeling the Observations of GRB 180720B: from Radio to Sub-TeV Gamma-Rays
Fraija, N., Dichiara, S., Pedreira, A. C. C. D. E. S., Galván-Gaméz, A., Becerra, R. L., Montalvo, A., Montero, J., Kamenetskaia, B. B., & Zhang, B. B. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab3e4b · Cited by 50
Self-citationMonfardini, A., Kobayashi, S., Guidorzi, C., Carter, D., Mundell, C. G., Bersier, D. F., Gomboc, A., Melandri, A., Mottram, C. J., Smith, R. J., et al. (2006) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/506170 · Cited by 50
Self-citationHigh-latitude emission from the structured jet of γ-ray bursts observed off-axis
Ascenzi, S., Oganesyan, G., Salafia, O. S., Branchesi, M., Ghirlanda, G., & Dall’Osso, S. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038265 · Cited by 49
“At lower energies, the early light curve of GRBs shows complex behavior (e.g., Tagliaferri et al. 2005; Nousek et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006; O’Brien et al. 2006; Liang et al. 2007; Willingale et al. 2007): frequently, the optical and X-ray emission present different temporal decays and, more…”
BackgroundZheng, W., Shen, R.-F., Sakamoto, T., Beardmore, A. P., de Pasquale, M., Wu, X.-F., Gorosabel, J., Urata, Y., Sugita, S., Zhang, B., et al. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/751/2/90 · Cited by 49
Self-citationX-ray flares in early GRB afterglows
Burrows, D. N., Falcone, A., Chincarini, G. L., Morris, D., Romano, P., Hill, J. E., Godet, O., Moretti, A., Krimm, H. A., Osborne, J. P., et al. (2007) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A Mathematical Physical and Engineering Sciences · doi:10.1098/rsta.2006.1970 · Cited by 49
“Detailed discussions of the physics behind these phases can be found in Nousek et al. (2006), Panaitescu et al. (2006) and Zhang et al. (2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationA CORRELATED STUDY OF OPTICAL AND X-RAY AFTERGLOWS OF GRBs
Li, L., Wu, X.-F., Huang, Y.-F., Wang, X.-G., Tang, Q.-W., Liang, Y.-F., Zhang, B.-B., Wang, Y., Geng, J.-J., Liang, E.-W., et al. (2015) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/805/1/13 · Cited by 48
“The temporal index α and spectral index β in various afterglow models and the typical numerical values of each case are summarized in Table 5 (see also Table 2 in Zhang et al. 2006; Sari et al. 1998, Sari et al. 1999; Chevalier & Li 1999).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe nature of the X-ray flash of August 24 2005
Sollerman, J., Fynbo, J. P. U., Gorosabel, J., Halpern, J. P., Hjorth, J., Jakobsson, P., Mirabal, N., Watson, D. J., Xu, D., Castro-Tirado, A. J., et al. (2007) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20066683 · Cited by 48
“This rather large amount of ejected energy is needed to explain the long and shallow decline; the amount is similar to that found for GRB 050315 (Zhang et al., 2006).”
ResultGRB060614: a “fake” short GRB from a merging binary system
Caito, L., Bernardini, M. G., Bianco, C. L., Dainotti, M. G., Guida, R., & RUFFINI, R. J. (2009) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200810676 · Cited by 48
Constraints on the circumburst environments of short gamma-ray bursts
O’Connor, B., Beniamini, P., & Kouveliotou, C. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1433 · Cited by 47
“If the X-ray light curve shows an early-steep decline (e.g. FX ∝ t−α with α 1.5) or an internal plateau4 (e.g. with t/t 1; see for example Liang et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006; Troja et al. 2007), we define the afterglow onset as the first detection after this period, which follows the ubiquitous GRB afterglow light-c…”
BackgroundInfluentialPanaitescu, A. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12607.x · Cited by 47
Jin, Z.-P., Yan, T., Fan, Y.-Z., & Wei, D. M. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/512971 · Cited by 46
“One speculation is that the central engine still works after the cease of the promptg-ray emission (Fan et al. 2005; Zhang et al. 2006; Dai et al. 2006; Gao & 1 Purple Mountain Observatory, Chinese Academy of Science, Nanjing, China.”
BackgroundSelf-citationOn the Early‐Time X‐Ray Spectra ofSwiftAfterglows. I. Evidence for Anomalous Soft X‐Ray Emission
Butler, N. (2007) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1086/510548 · Cited by 46
External Inverse-Compton Emission from Low-luminosity Gamma-Ray Bursts: Application to GRB 190829A
Zhang, B. T., Murase, K., Vereš, P., & Mészáros, P. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ac0cfc · Cited by 46
Self-citationGRB 211227A as a Peculiar Long Gamma-Ray Burst from a Compact Star Merger
Lü, H.-J., Yuan, H.-Y., Yi, T.-F., Wang, X.-G., Hu, Y. D., Yuan, Y., Rice, J., Wang, J.-G., Cao, J., Kong, D.-F., et al. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac6e3a · Cited by 46
“In terms of the X-ray afterglow, the X-ray emission of GRB 211227A is not a significant difference with other longduration GRBs that presented several segments (Zhang et al. 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEarly afterglow detection in the Swift observations of GRB 050801
de Pasquale, M., Oates, S. R., Page, M. J., Burrows, D. N., Blustin, A. J., Zane, S., Mason, K. O., Roming, P. W. A., Palmer, D. M., Gehrels, N., et al. (2007) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11724.x · Cited by 46
“Moreover, theoretical predictions show that in this scenario the “bump” should follow a broad peak (see Zhang et al. 2006a).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationOn the nature of late X-ray flares in Swift gamma-ray bursts
Curran, P. A., Starling, R. L. C., O'Brien, P. T., Godet, O., van der Horst, A. J., & Wijers, R. A. M. J. (2008) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200809652 · Cited by 46
Low-Luminosity GRB 060218: A Collapsar Jet from a Neutron Star, Leaving a Magnetar as a Remnant?
Toma, K., Ioka, K., Sakamoto, T., & Nakamura, T. (2006) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 46
DELAYED ENERGY INJECTION MODEL FOR GAMMA-RAY BURST AFTERGLOWS
Geng, J. J., Wu, X. F., Huang, Y. F., & Yu, Y. B. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/779/1/28 · Cited by 45
THE LATE PEAKING AFTERGLOW OF GRB 100418A
Marshall, F. E., Antonelli, L. A., Burrows, D. N., Covino, S., de Pasquale, M., Evans, P. A., Fugazza, D. P., Holland, S. T., Liang, E., O'Brien, P. T., et al. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/727/2/132 · Cited by 45
Self-citationPeng, F.-K., Liang, E.-W., Wang, X.-Y., Hou, S.-J., Xi, S.-Q., Lu, R.-J., Zhang, J., & Zhang, B. (2014) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/795/2/155 · Cited by 45
“It is generally believed that X-ray flares are of an internal origin and may signal the restart of the GRB central engine post the prompt gamma-ray phase (e.g., Burrows et al. 2005a; Zhang et al. 2006; Liang et al. 2006; Dai et al. 2006; see review by Zhang 2007).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGao, H., Zhang, B.-B., & Zhang, B. (2012) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/748/2/134 · Cited by 45
Self-citationGRB 081028 and its late-time afterglow re-brightening
Margutti, R., Genet, F., Granot, J., Duran, R. B., Guidorzi, C., Chincarini, G. L., Mao, J., Schady, P., Sakamoto, T., Miller, A. A., et al. (2009) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2009.15882.x · Cited by 45
Self-citationLu, H., Zou, L., Lan, L., & Liang, E. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty2176 · Cited by 45
A Comprehensive Statistical Study of Gamma-Ray Bursts
Wang, F., Zou, Y.-C., Liu, F., Liao, B., Liu, Y., Chai, Y., & Xia, L. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab0a86 · Cited by 45
The Shallow Decay Segment of GRB X-Ray Afterglow Revisited
Zhao, L., Zhang, B., Gao, H., Lan, L., Lü, H.-J., & Zhang, B. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab38c4 · Cited by 45
“…new information about early-time afterglows was revealed (Burrows et al. 2005b; Tagliaferri et al. 2005; Nousek et al. 2006; O’Brien et al. 2006; Zhang et al. 2006; Evans et al. 2009), especially in the X-ray band, thanks mainly to the rapid slewing and precise localization capability of its…”
BackgroundSelf-citationGRB 060605: multi-wavelength analysis of the first GRB observed using integral field spectroscopy
Ferrero, P., Klose, S., Kann, D. A., Savaglio, S., Schulze, S., Palazzi, E., Maiorano, E., Böhm, P., Grupe, D., Oates, S. R., et al. (2009) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/200809980 · Cited by 44
Metadata
- Authors
- Zhang, B., Fan, Y. Z., Dyks, J., Kobayashi, S., Meszaros, P., Burrows, D. N., Nousek, J. A., & Gehrels, N.
- Affiliations
- University of Nevada, Las Vegas (US)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Goddard Space Flight Center (US)
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2006-05
- Volume
- 642
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 354-370
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2078391322
- Cited by
- 1,079
- References
- 155
- Citations by year
- 2026: 46 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 52 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 40 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 52 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 50 · 2013: 52 · 2012: 47
- FWCI
- 51.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (0114375, 0307376)
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NAS5-00136)
- University of Pennsylvania
- Pennsylvania State University (NAS5-00136)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Gamma-ray bursts and supernovae
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Astrophysics and Cosmic Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Keywords
- gamma-ray bursts, X-ray afterglow, afterglow light curves, Swift X-ray Telescope, X-ray flares, prompt gamma-ray emission, central engine, forward shock, relativistic outflows, Poynting flux, interstellar medium, afterglow decay
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