The DOI matches its Crossref record; 93 of the 93 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
THE FERMI BUBBLES: SUPERSONIC ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEUS JETS WITH ANISOTROPIC COSMIC-RAY DIFFUSION
Open accessAbstract
The Fermi Gamma-Ray Space Telescope reveals two large bubbles in the Galaxy, which extend nearly symmetrically ∼50° above and below the Galactic center. Using three-dimensional (3D) magnetohydrodynamic simulations that self-consistently include the dynamical interaction between cosmic rays (CRs) and thermal gas and anisotropic CR diffusion along the magnetic field lines, we show that the key characteristics of the observed gamma-ray bubbles and the spatially correlated X-ray features in the ROSAT 1.5 keV map can be successfully reproduced by recent jet activity from the central active galactic nucleus. We find that after taking into account the projection of the 3D bubbles onto the sky the physical heights of the bubbles can be much smaller than previously thought, greatly reducing the formation time of the bubbles to about a Myr. This relatively small bubble age is needed to reconcile the simulations with the upper limit of bubble ages estimated from the cooling time of high-energy electrons. No additional physical mechanisms are required to suppress large-scale hydrodynamic instabilities because the evolution time is too short for them to develop. The simulated CR bubbles are edge-brightened, which is consistent with the observed projected flat surface brightness distribution. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the sharp edges of the observed bubbles can be due to anisotropic CR diffusion along magnetic field lines that drape around the bubbles during their supersonic expansion, with suppressed perpendicular diffusion across the bubble surface. Possible causes of the slight bends of the Fermi bubbles to the west are also discussed.
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“The short cooling time of the CRe requires the age of the FBs, t fb ≲ t IC , cool ≈ 2 Myr (Guo & Mathews 2012; Guo et al. 2012; Yang et al. 2012).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Yang et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“Jet-driven bubbles have been simulated in the context of the FBs where the jet is injected for a short period of time ( ∼ 0 . 1 -0 . 5 Myr) with jet power, L jet ∼ (1 -3) × 10 44 erg s -1 i.e., 0 . 2 -0 . 5 L edd and total energy ∼ 10 57 erg (Guo et al. 2012; Guo & Mathews 2012; Yang et al. 2012, 2013; Yang & Ruszkowski 2017; Yang et al. 2022).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Yang et al. 2012
In the citing paper
“Additionally, the magnetic draping of the ambient magnetic fields can suppress such instabilities as well as CR diffusion across the bubbles, and thereby, maintain a smooth and sharp edge (Yang et al. 2012).”
From The Fermi/eROSITA bubbles: a look into the nuclear outflow from the Milky Way (2024) · cites this paper as Yang et al. 2012
Citations
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“A.4 Nonlinear Shock Tube Test for a Composite of Thermal Gas and Cosmic Rays The Sod shock tube problem (Sod 1978) is a standard test for the accuracy of computational fluid codes, in particular the Riemann solver.”
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“…extragalactic radio sources (e.g., Scheuer 1974; Blandford & Rees 1974) and CRfilled bubbles (e.g., Laing et al. 2006) observed in massive galaxies and galaxy clusters (McNamara & Nulsen 2007), though their gamma-ray emission cannot be easily detected due to limited sensitivity and resolution.”
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“Furthermore, AGN jets are known to be responsible for radio synchrotron emission from extended extragalactic radio sources (e.g., Scheuer 1974; Blandford & Rees 1974) and CRfilled bubbles (e.g., Laing et al. 2006) observed in massive galaxies and galaxy clusters (McNamara & Nulsen 2007), though…”
BackgroundGIANT GAMMA-RAY BUBBLES FROM FERMI-LAT: ACTIVE GALACTIC NUCLEUS ACTIVITY OR BIPOLAR GALACTIC WIND?
Su, M., Slatyer, T., & Finkbeiner, D. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/724/2/1044 · Cited by 756 · cited 13×
“100 GeV, the IC cooling time of ∼ 100 GeV electrons poses a stringent upper limit to the age of the bubbles to be at most a few million years old (Su et al. 2010).”
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Items 101–146 of 146
Evolution and feedback of AGN jets of different cosmic ray composition
Lin, Y.-H., Yang, H.-Y. K., & Owen, E. R. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad185 · Cited by 8
Self-citationApproximate Riemann solvers for the cosmic ray magnetohydrodynamical equations
Kudoh, Y., & Hanawa, T. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stw1937 · Cited by 8
“Similar schemes are employed in Hanasz & Lesch (2003), Yang et al. (2012), and Dubois & Commerçon (2016).”
MethodOutflows in the presence of cosmic rays and waves with cooling
Ko, C., Ramzan, B., & Chernyshov, D. O. (2021) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202141047 · Cited by 7
Outflows in the Presence of Cosmic Rays and Waves
Ramzan, B., Ko, C. M., & Chernyshov, D. O. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abc82b · Cited by 7
Probing the Halo Gas Distribution in the Inner Galaxy with Fermi Bubble Observations
Zhang, R.-Y., & Guo, F.-L. (2021) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abfdb1 · Cited by 5
Fermi bubbles as a source of cosmic rays above 1015 eV
Chernyshov, D., Cheng, K.-S., Dogiel, V., & Ko, C.-M. (2014) · Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements · doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2014.10.021 · Cited by 4
Evidence for a hadronic origin of the Fermi Bubbles and the Galactic Excess
Boer, W. D. (2016) · International Cosmic Ray Conference · doi:10.22323/1.236.0907 · Cited by 8
Fluid simulations of cosmic ray-modified shocks
Tsung, T. H. N., Oh, S. P., & Jiang, Y.-F. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1926 · Cited by 5
“In recent years, as interest in the role of CRs in galaxy formation has rapidly grown, many new codes for simulating CR transport in the two fluid approximation have been developed (CR streaming with regularization (Sharma et al. 2009); ENZO (Salem& Bryan 2014); AREPO (Pfrommer et al. 2017); GIZMO (Chan et al. 2019);…”
A galactic breeze origin for the Fermi bubbles emission
Tourmente, O., Rodgers-Lee, D., & Taylor, A. M. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3517 · Cited by 5
The AGN Jet Model of the Fermi Bubbles
Guo, F.-L. (2016) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921316012023 · Cited by 4
“The model is further studied by Guo et al. (2012), Yang et al. (2012), and Yang et al. (2013), arguing that the bubbles were produced by a recent AGN jet activity about few Myrs ago, and the origin of the gamma ray emission is leptonic.”
BackgroundReconstruction of Fermi and eROSITA Bubbles from Magnetized Jet Eruption with Simulations
Chang, C.-J., & Kiang, J. (2024) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe10070279 · Cited by 3
A possible origin of gamma rays from the Fermi Bubbles
Thoudam, S. (2014) · Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements · doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysbps.2014.10.015 · Cited by 2
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Katsoulakos, G., RIEGER, F. M., & Reville, B. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aba89d · Cited by 5
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Stefano Gabici, A., Recchia, S., Aharonian, F., & Niro, V. (2021) · International Cosmic Ray Conference · doi:10.22323/1.395.0683 · Cited by 3
Unveiling the Origin of the Fermi/eRosita Bubbles
Yang, H.-Y. K., Ruszkowski, M., & Zweibel, E. G. (2023) · European Cosmic Ray Symposium (ECRS) · doi:10.22323/1.423.0023 · Cited by 3
Self-citationTransonic plasma winds with cosmic-rays and waves
Ramzan, B., Mir, Z., Rasheed, A., & Jamil, M. (2023) · Physica Scripta · doi:10.1088/1402-4896/ad07bf · Cited by 3
A fluid approach to cosmic-ray modified shocks
Ramzan, B., Qazi, S., SALARZAI, I., Tahir, M., Mirza, A. M., Rasheed, A., & Jamil, M. (2024) · Advances in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.asr.2024.06.071 · Cited by 3
Constraining cosmic-ray acceleration in the magnetospheric gaps of Sgr A*
Katsoulakos, G., RIEGER, F. M., & Reville, B. (2020) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 3
Evidence for powerful winds and the associated reverse shock as the origin of the Fermi bubbles
Fujita, Y. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3312 · Cited by 2
The Signature of the Northern Galactic Center Region in Low-velocity UV Absorption
Soto, C., Ashley, T., Fox, A., & Bordoloi, R. (2023) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ace597 · Cited by 2
Sagittarius $$\textrm{A}^{\star }$$ as a Plausible Source Candidate for PeV Neutrinos
Ray, S., & Dey, R. K. (2023) · Brazilian Journal of Physics · doi:10.1007/s13538-023-01390-x · Cited by 2
Sources and Radiations of the Fermi Bubbles
Dogiel, V., & Ko, C.-M. (2024) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe10110424 · Cited by 2
Tidal disruption events as the origin of the eROSITA and Fermi bubbles
Scheffler, T., Schulreich, M. M., Schurer, D. P. P. R., & Breitschwerdt, D. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202451965 · Cited by 2
Possible Counterpart Signal of the Fermi Bubbles at the Cosmic-Ray Positrons
Cholis, I., & Krommydas, I. (2022) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/accb55 · Cited by 3
A New Scheme To Solve The Two-Fluid Cosmic-Ray Magnetohydrodynamic Equations
Kudoh, Y., & Hanawa, T. (2016) · Journal of Physics Conference Series · doi:10.1088/1742-6596/719/1/012021 · Cited by 2
The Fermi Bubbles as a Superbubble
Zaninetti, L. (2018) · International Journal of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.4236/ijaa.2018.82015
“We now outline some of them: processes connected with the galactic super-massive black hole in Sagittarius A, see [12, 13, 14].”
BackgroundCan the Symmetric Fermi and eROSITA Bubbles Be Produced by Tilted Jets?
Tseng, P.-H., Yang, H., Chen, C.-Y., Schive, H.-Y., & Chiueh, T. (2024) · Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad50c5
Self-citationEmission from hadronic and leptonic processes in galactic jet-driven bubbles
Owen, E. R., & Yang, H.-Y. K. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac119 · Cited by 10
Self-citationDiscovery of Giant Bubbles in the Hot Gaseous Halo of the Massive Disk Galaxy NGC 6286
He, L., Li, Z., Li, Z., García-Benito, R., Liu, Y., & Hou, M. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ae0722 · Cited by 1
The Fermi Bubbles from Stochastic Acceleration by Turbulence in a Galactic Outflow
Mertsch, P., & Petrosian, V. (2017) · International Cosmic Ray Conference · doi:10.22323/1.301.1108 · Cited by 1
Holguin, F., Farber, R. J., & Werk, J. K. (2024) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stae509 · Cited by 1
Smith, R. K., Arenberg, J. W., Bautz, M. W., Behar, E., Bhattacharyya, D., Bookbinder, J. A., Bregman, J. N., Brenneman, L. W., Brickhouse, N. S., Bülbül, E., et al. (2024) · Space Telescopes and Instrumentation: Ultraviolet to Gamma Ray · doi:10.1117/12.3022452 · Cited by 1
Galactic outflows in different geometries
Majeed, U., & Ramzan, B. (2024) · Advances in Space Research · doi:10.1016/j.asr.2024.10.025 · Cited by 1
Fermi bubble simulations: black hole feedback in the Milky Way
Ruszkowski, M., Yang, H., & Zweibel, E. G. (2013) · Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union · doi:10.1017/s1743921314000994 · Cited by 1
“Assuming cosmic ray diffusion is anisotropic (Yang et al. (2012)), this prevents the cosmic rays from readily diffusing out of the bubbles, and thus accounts for their sharpness in the gamma-ray emission.”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationSatellite infall and mass deposition on the Galactic Centre
Gallego, S. G., & Cuadra, J. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slw254 · Cited by 1
“…Yang et al. 2014; Ackermann et al. 2014), a pair of gamma-ray emitting bubbles located nearly perpendicular to the Galactic plane, and extending kiloparsecs away from the GC, are interpreted as the result of AGN-like and/or starburst activity around Sgr A* (Guo & Mathews 2012; Yang et al. 2012).”
BackgroundFermi bubbles as sources of cosmic rays above 1 PeV
Chernyshov, D. O., Cheng, K.-S., Dogiel, V. A., & Ko, C. (2017) · EPJ Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/epjconf/201714504004 · Cited by 1
Kalashev, O. E., Martynenko, N., & Troitsky, S. V. (2023) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2023/03/053 · Cited by 1
Gamma rays from Fermi bubbles as due to diffusive injection of Galactic cosmic rays
Thoudam, S. (2014) · Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A Accelerators Spectrometers Detectors and Associated Equipment · doi:10.1016/j.nima.2013.09.016
Fermi Bubbles: an elephant in the gamma-ray sky
Malyshev, D. (2017) · EPJ Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/epjconf/201713603011
Fermi bubbles as sources of cosmic rays above 1 PeV
Chernyshov, D., Cheng, K.-S., Dogiel, V., & Ko, C.-M. (2017) · EPJ Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/epjconf/201614504004
On the high-energy proton regular acceleration in the Fermi bubbles
Istomin, Y. N., & Gunya, A. A. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac789
Past activity of Sgr A⋆ is unlikely to affect the local cosmic-ray spectrum up to the TeV regime
Fournier, M., Fensch, J., & Commerçon, B. (2024) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202450017
Fermi/eROSITA bubbles as relics of the past activity of the galaxy’s central black hole
Yang, H.-Y. K. (2024) · International Journal of Modern Physics D · doi:10.1142/s0218271825400048
Self-citationRamzan, B., Qazi, S. N. A., & Ko, C. (2025) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe11090290
The role of magnetic fields in shaping γ-ray emission from the Fermi bubbles
Tourmente, O., Rodgers-Lee, D., & Taylor, A. M. (2026) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stag169
Metadata
- Authors
- Yang, H.-Y. K., Ruszkowski, M., Ricker, P. M., Zweibel, E., & Lee, D.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- University of Chicago (US)
- Corresponding author
- Yang, H.-Y. K.
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2012-12-06
- Volume
- 761
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 185
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2023693056
- Cited by
- 147
- References
- 93
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 10 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 15 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 9
- FWCI
- 5.33
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (acceptedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Astrophysics and Cosmic Phenomena
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Astrophysical Phenomena and Observations
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Gamma-ray bursts and supernovae
- Keywords
- Fermi bubbles, magnetohydrodynamic simulations, Galactic Center
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