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FUNDAMENTAL LIMITATIONS OF HIGH CONTRAST IMAGING SET BY SMALL SAMPLE STATISTICS
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In this paper, we review the impact of small sample statistics on detection thresholds and corresponding confidence levels (CLs) in high-contrast imaging at small angles. When looking close to the star, the number of resolution elements decreases rapidly toward small angles. This reduction of the number of degrees of freedom dramatically affects CLs and false alarm probabilities. Naively using the same ideal hypothesis and methods as for larger separations, which are well understood and commonly assume Gaussian noise, can yield up to one order of magnitude error in contrast estimations at fixed CL. The statistical penalty exponentially increases toward very small inner working angles. Even at 5–10 resolution elements from the star, false alarm probabilities can be significantly higher than expected. Here we present a rigorous statistical analysis that ensures robustness of the CL, but also imposes a substantial limitation on corresponding achievable detection limits (thus contrast) at small angles. This unavoidable fundamental statistical effect has a significant impact on current coronagraphic and future high-contrast imagers. Finally, the paper concludes with practical recommendations to account for small number statistics when computing the sensitivity to companions at small angles and when exploiting the results of direct imaging planet surveys.
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“The small number of statistically independent patches close to the central star means that a correction is required to the sensitivity as described in Mawet et al. (2014), and we apply this correction to the contrast curve.”
From ALMA and NACO observations towards the young exoring transit system J1407 (V1400 Cen) (2020) · cites this paper as Mawet et al. 2014
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Self-citationLawson, K., Currie, T., Wisniewski, J. P., Groff, T. D., McElwain, M. W., & Schlieder, J. E. (2022) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac853b · Cited by 21
Deep Orbital Search for Additional Planets in the HR 8799 System
Thompson, W. R., Marois, C., Ó, C. R. D., Konopacky, Q., Ruffio, J.-B., Wang, J., Skemer, A. J. I., Rosa, R. J. D., & Macintosh, B. (2022) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aca1af · Cited by 21
Self-citationA Search for Companions via Direct Imaging in the DSHARP Planet-forming Disks
Jorquera, S., Pérez, L., Chauvin, G., Benisty, M., Zhu, Z.-H., Isella, A., Huang, J., Ricci, L., Andrews, S., Zhang, S.-J., et al. (2020) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/abd40d · Cited by 10
IMAGING AN 80 au RADIUS DUST RING AROUND THE F5V STAR HD 157587
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Self-citationUpper limits for mass and radius of objects around Proxima Cen from SPHERE/VLT
Mesa, D., Zurlo, A., Milli, J., Gratton, R., Desidera, S., Langlois, M., Vigan, A., Bonavita, M., Antichi, J., Avenhaus, H., et al. (2016) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slw241 · Cited by 20
Self-citationBonse, M. J., Garvin, E. O., Gebhard, T. D., Dannert, F., Cantalloube, F., Cugno, G., Absil, O., Hayoz, J., Milli, J., Kasper, M. E., et al. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/acc93c · Cited by 20
Self-citationRegime-switching model detection map for direct exoplanet detection in ADI sequences
Dahlqvist, C.-H., Cantalloube, F., & Absil, O. (2020) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936421/pdf · Cited by 20
Self-citationFirst Observations of the Brown Dwarf HD 19467 B with JWST
Greenbaum, A. Z., Llop-Sayson, J. D., Lew, B. W. P., Bryden, G., Roellig, T. L., Ygouf, M., Fulton, B. J., Hey, D., Huber, D., Mukherjee, S., et al. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acb68b · Cited by 19
Turrini, D., Marzari, F., Polychroni, D., Claudi, R., Desidera, S., Mesa, D., Pinamonti, M., Sozzetti, A., Mascareño, A. S., Damasso, M., et al. (2023) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244752 · Cited by 22
JWST-TST High Contrast: JWST/NIRCam Observations of the Young Giant Planet β Pic b
Kammerer, J., Lawson, K., Perrin, M. D., Rebollido, I., Stark, C. C., Stolker, T., Girard, J. H., Pueyo, L. A., Balmer, W. O., Worthen, K., et al. (2024) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad4ffe · Cited by 19
Self-citationEvidence for Variable Accretion onto PDS 70 c and Implications for Protoplanet Detections
Zhou, Y., Bowler, B. P., Sanghi, A., Marleau, G.-D., Takasao, S., Aoyama, Y., Hasegawa, Y., Thanathibodee, T., Uyama, T., Hashimoto, J., et al. (2025) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/adb134 · Cited by 19
Data Reduction and Image Reconstruction Techniques for Non-redundant Masking
Sallum, S., & Eisner, J. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series · doi:10.3847/1538-4365/aa90bb · Cited by 19
A Bayesian Framework for Exoplanet Direct Detection and Non-detection
Ruffio, J.-B., Mawet, D. P., Czekala, I., Macintosh, B., Rosa, R. J. D., Ruane, G., Bottom, M., Pueyo, L. A., Wang, J. J., Hirsch, L. A., et al. (2018) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aade95 · Cited by 19
Self-citationSanghi, A., Zhou, Y.-F., & Bowler, B. (2021) · Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac477e · Cited by 19
Follow-up Exploration of the TWA 7 Planet–Disk System with JWST NIRCam
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Self-citationFlasseur, O., Bodrito, T., Mairal, J., Ponce, J., Langlois, M., & Lagrange, A. ‐. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3143 · Cited by 18
Direct-imaging Discovery of a Substellar Companion Orbiting the Accelerating Variable Star HIP 39017
Tobin, T., Currie, T., Li, Y., Chilcote, J., Brandt, T. D., Lacy, B. I., Kuzuhara, M., Vincent, M., Morsy, M. E., Déo, V., et al. (2024) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad3077 · Cited by 18
K-Stacker: Keplerian image recombination for the direct detection of exoplanets
Nowak, M., Coroller, H. L., Arnold, L., Dohlen, K., Estevez, D., Fusco, T., Sauvage, J.-F., & Vigan, A. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201629531 · Cited by 18
Matthews, E. C., Hinkley, S., Vigan, A., Kennedy, G. M., Sutlieff, B. J., Wickenden, D., Treves, S., David, T. J., Meshkat, T., Mawet, D. P., et al. (2018) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1778 · Cited by 18
Self-citationGibbs, A., Wagner, K., Apai, D., Moór, A., Currie, T., Bonnefoy, M., Langlois, M., & Lisse, C. (2019) · Repository of the Academy's Library (Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) · Cited by 18
RefPlanets: Search for reflected light from extrasolar planets with SPHERE/ZIMPOL
Hunziker, S., Schmid, H. M., Mouillet, D., Milli, J., Zurlo, A., Delorme, P., Abe, L., Avenhaus, H., Baruffolo, A., Bazzon, A., et al. (2020) · Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich) · doi:10.3929/ethz-b-000403774 · Cited by 18
Self-citationRegime-switching model detection map for direct exoplanet detection in ADI sequences
Dahlqvist, C.-H., Cantalloube, F., & Absil, O. (2019) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201936421 · Cited by 18
Self-citationA dusty benchmark brown dwarf near the ice line of HD 72946
Maire, A.-L., Baudino, J.-L., Desidera, S., Messina, S., Brandner, W., Godoy, N., Cantalloube, F., Galicher, R., Bonnefoy, M., Hagelberg, J., et al. (2019) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201937134/pdf · Cited by 18
Self-citationDesidera, S., Damasso, M., Gratton, R., Benatti, S., Nardiello, D., D’Orazi, V., Lanza, A. F., Locci, D., Marzari, F., Mesa, D., et al. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244611 · Cited by 20
Kinematic and thermal signatures of the directly imaged protoplanet candidate around Elias 2−24
Pinte, C., Hammond, I., Price, D. J., Christiaens, V., Andrews, S. M., Chauvin, G., Pérez, L. M., Jorquera, S., Garg, H., Norfolk, B. J., et al. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slad010 · Cited by 17
Characterizing Exoplanet Habitability
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Four Jovian planets around low-luminosity giant stars observed by the EXPRESS and PPPS
Jones, M. I., Wittenmyer, R. A., Aguilera-Gómez, C., Soto, M. G., Torres, P., Trifonov, T., Jenkins, J. S., Zapata, A., Sarkis, P., Zakhozhay, O. V., et al. (2020) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202038555 · Cited by 17
First scattered light detection of a nearly edge-on transition disk around the T Tauri star RY Lupi
Langlois, M., Pohl, A., Lagrange, A. ‐., Maire, A.-L., Mesa, D., Boccaletti, A., Gratton, R., Denneulin, L., Klahr, H. H., Vigan, A., et al. (2018) · Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich) · doi:10.3929/ethz-b-000274353 · Cited by 17
Self-citationDirect Imaging as a Detection Technique for Exoplanets
Pueyo, L. A. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_10 · Cited by 16
Self-citationPCA-based approach for subtracting thermal background emission in high-contrast imaging data
Hunziker, S., Quanz, S. P., Amara, A., & Meyer, M. R. (2018) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201731428/pdf · Cited by 16
A faint companion around CrA-9: protoplanet or obscured binary?
Christiaens, V., Ubeira-Gabellini, M. G., Cánovas, H., Delorme, P., Pairet, B., Absil, O., Casassus, S., Girard, J. H., Zurlo, A., Aoyama, Y., et al. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab480 · Cited by 16
Self-citationGebhard, T. D., Bonse, M. J., Quanz, S. P., & Schölkopf, B. (2022) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202142529 · Cited by 16
Rosa, R. J. D., Esposito, T. M., Hirsch, L. A., Nielsen, E. L., Marley, M. S., Kalas, P., Wang, J., & Macintosh, B. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab4c9b · Cited by 16
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Self-citationSearching for Planets Orbiting Fomalhaut with JWST/NIRCam
Ygouf, M., Beichman, C., Llop-Sayson, J. D., Bryden, G., Leisenring, J., Gáspár, A., Krist, J., Rieke, M. J., Rieke, G. H., Wolff, S. G., et al. (2023) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad08c8 · Cited by 15
Walter, A. B., Bockstiegel, C., Brandt, T. D., & Mazin, B. A. (2019) · Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific · doi:10.1088/1538-3873/ab389a · Cited by 15
Metadata
- Authors
- Mawet, D., Milli, J., Wahhaj, Z., Pelat, D., Absil, O., Delacroix, C., Boccaletti, A., Kasper, M., Kenworthy, M., Marois, C., Mennesson, B., & Pueyo, L.
- Affiliations
- European Southern Observatory (CL)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- University of Liège (BE)
- European Southern Observatory (DE)
- Leiden University (NL)
- Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics (CA)
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory (US)
- Space Telescope Science Institute (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2014-08-21
- Volume
- 792
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 97
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2147778163
- Cited by
- 369
- References
- 56
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 27 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 37 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 31 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 6
- FWCI
- 13.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Astrophysical Journal (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- CaltechAUTHORS (California Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- NPARC (submittedVersion)
- ORBi (University of Liège) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- National Aeronautics and Space Administration
- California Institute of Technology
- European Commission
- Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles
- European Southern Observatory
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Adaptive optics and wavefront sensing
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Instrumentation › Astronomy and Astrophysical Research
- Keywords
- high-contrast imaging, small sample statistics, detection threshold, confidence level, false alarm probability, inner working angle, coronagraphy, exoplanet direct imaging, statistical limitations, contrast estimation
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