The DOI matches its Crossref record; 90 of the 90 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
MAKE SUPER-EARTHS, NOT JUPITERS: ACCRETING NEBULAR GAS ONTO SOLID CORES AT 0.1 AU AND BEYOND
Open accessAbstract
Close-in super-Earths having radii 1–4 R ⊕ may possess hydrogen atmospheres comprising a few percent by mass of their rocky cores. We determine the conditions under which such atmospheres can be accreted by cores from their parent circumstellar disks. Accretion from the nebula is problematic because it is too efficient: we find that 10 M ⊕ cores embedded in solar metallicity disks tend to undergo runaway gas accretion and explode into Jupiters, irrespective of orbital location. The threat of runaway is especially dire at ∼0.1 AU, where solids may coagulate on timescales orders of magnitude shorter than gas clearing times; thus nascent atmospheres on close-in orbits are unlikely to be supported against collapse by planetesimal accretion. The time to runaway accretion is well approximated by the cooling time of the atmosphere's innermost convective zone, whose extent is controlled by where H 2 dissociates. Insofar as the temperatures characterizing H 2 dissociation are universal, timescales for core instability tend not to vary with orbital distance—and to be alarmingly short for 10 M ⊕ cores. Nevertheless, in the thicket of parameter space, we identify two scenarios, not mutually exclusive, that can reproduce the preponderance of percent-by-mass atmospheres for super-Earths at ∼0.1 AU, while still ensuring the formation of Jupiters at ≳ 1 AU. Scenario (a): planets form in disks with dust-to-gas ratios that range from ∼20 × solar at 0.1 AU to ∼2 × solar at 5 AU. Scenario (b): the final assembly of super-Earth cores from mergers of proto-cores—a process that completes quickly at ∼0.1 AU once begun—is delayed by gas dynamical friction until just before disk gas dissipates completely. Both scenarios predict that the occurrence rate for super-Earths versus orbital distance, and the corresponding rate for Jupiters, should trend in opposite directions, as the former population is transformed into the latter: as gas giants become more frequent from ∼1 to 10 AU, super-Earths should become more rare.
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Cites
Formation of the Giant Planets by Concurrent Accretion of Solids and Gas
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Direct Imaging of Multiple Planets Orbiting the Star HR 8799
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THE FALSE POSITIVE RATE OF KEPLER AND THE OCCURRENCE OF PLANETS
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PLANETARY CANDIDATES OBSERVED BY KEPLER . III. ANALYSIS OF THE FIRST 16 MONTHS OF DATA
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THE EFFECTS OF SNOWLINES ON C/O IN PLANETARY ATMOSPHERES
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Clouds in the atmosphere of the super-Earth exoplanet GJ 1214b
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Cited by
The California-Kepler Survey. III. A Gap in the Radius Distribution of Small Planets*
Fulton, B. J., Petigura, E. A., Howard, A. W., Isaacson, H., Marcy, G. W., Cargile, P. A., Hebb, L., Weiss, L. M., Johnson, J. A., Morton, T. D., et al. (2017) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aa80eb · Cited by 1,446
Dawson, R. I., & Johnson, J. A. (2018) · Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051853 · Cited by 622
Dearth of short-period Neptunian exoplanets: A desert in period-mass and period-radius planes
Mazeh, T., Holczer, T., & Faigler, S. (2016) · Astronomy & Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201528065 · Cited by 355
BREEDING SUPER-EARTHS AND BIRTHING SUPER-PUFFS IN TRANSITIONAL DISKS
Lee, E. J., & Chiang, E. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/817/2/90 · Cited by 317
Self-citationIN SITU FORMATION AND DYNAMICAL EVOLUTION OF HOT JUPITER SYSTEMS
Batygin, K., Bodenheimer, P. H., & Laughlin, G. P. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/829/2/114 · Cited by 265
Metadata
- Authors
- Lee, E. J., Chiang, E., & Ormel, C. W.
- Venue
- The Astrophysical Journal
- Publisher
- American Astronomical Society
- Published
- 2014-12-03
- Volume
- 797
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 95
- ISSN
- 0004-637X (ISSN-L)
- 1538-4357
- OpenAlex
- W2078818740
- Cited by
- 305
- References
- 90
- FWCI
- 12.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
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- Lee, E. J., Chiang, E., & Ormel, C. W. (2014). MAKE SUPER-EARTHS, NOT JUPITERS: ACCRETING NEBULAR GAS ONTO SOLID CORES AT 0.1 AU AND BEYOND. The Astrophysical Journal. https://doi.org/10.1088/0004-637x/797/2/95
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