Detectability of Planetary Characteristics in Disk-Averaged Spectra II: Synthetic Spectra and Light-Curves of Earth
Abstract
Spatially and spectrally resolved models were used to explore the observational sensitivity to changes in atmospheric and surface properties and the detectability of surface biosignatures in the globally averaged spectra and light-curves of the Earth. Compared with previous efforts to characterize the Earth using disk-averaged models, a more comprehensive and realistic treatment of the surface and atmosphere was taken into account here. Our results are presented as a function of viewing geometry and phases at both visible/near-infrared (0.5-1.7 microm) and mid-infrared (5-25 microm) wavelength ranges, applicable to the proposed NASA-Terrestrial Planet Finder visible coronagraph and mid-infrared interferometer and to the ESADarwin mission architectures. Clouds can change the thermal emission by as much as 50% compared with the cloud-free case and increase the visible albedo by up to 500% for completely overcast cases at the dichotomy phase. Depending on the observed phase and their distribution and type, clouds can also significantly alter the spectral shape. Moreover, clouds impact the detectability of surface biosignatures in the visible wavelength range. Modeling the disk-averaged sensitivity to the "red-edge," a distinctive spectral signature of vegetation, showed that Earth's land vegetation could be seen in disk-averaged spectra, even with cloud cover, when the signal was averaged over the daily time scale. We found that vegetation is more readily discriminated from clouds at dichotomy (50% illumination) rather than at full phase. The detectability of phytoplankton was also explored, but was found to be more difficult to detect in the disk-average than land vegetation.
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Tinetti et al. (70) also considered marine plankton detectability and found that even on planets with shallow oceans and an order of magnitude more plankton than the modern Earth, the disc-integrated spectral features would be weaker than the vegetation signal.
“Tinetti et al. (70) also considered marine plankton detectability and found that even on planets with shallow oceans and an order of magnitude more plankton than the modern Earth, the disc-integrated spectral features would be weaker than the vegetation signal.”
From Disequilibrium biosignatures over Earth history and implications for detecting exoplanet life (2018) · cites this paper as [70]
Tinetti et al. (70) showed that the vegetative red edge is potentially detectable with next-generation direct imaging, though challenging with realistic clouds.
“Tinetti et al. (70) showed that the vegetative red edge is potentially detectable with next-generation direct imaging, though challenging with realistic clouds.”
From Disequilibrium biosignatures over Earth history and implications for detecting exoplanet life (2018) · cites this paper as [70]
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“Tinetti et al. (2006a) estimated that detection of the red edge in a disk average would require at least 20% cloud-free diurnal average vegetated land cover.”
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BackgroundInfluentialExoplanet Biosignatures: Understanding Oxygen as a Biosignature in the Context of Its Environment
Meadows, V., Reinhard, C. T., Arney, G., Parenteau, M. N., Schwieterman, E. W., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Lincowski, A., Stapelfeldt, K. R., Rauer, H., DasSarma, S., et al. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1727 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
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Self-citationKiang, N. Y., Segura, A., Tinetti, G., Jee, G., Blankenship, R. E., Cohen, M., Siefert, J., Crisp, D., & Meadows, V. S. (2007) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2006.0108 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
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Self-citationThe habitability of planets orbiting M-dwarf stars
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ALIEN MAPS OF AN OCEAN-BEARING WORLD
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“…the principal colors of Earth are related to the main surface types on Earth: cloud-free continents are most re-flective at longer wavelengths (Tinetti et al. 2006a, constructed from the ASTER Spectral Library found at http://speclib.jpl.nasa.gov), while cloud-free oceans are most…”
Self-citationEarth as an Extrasolar Planet: Earth Model Validation Using EPOXI Earth Observations
Robinson, T. D., Meadows, V., Crisp, D., Deming, D., A’Hearn, M. F., Charbonneau, D., Livengood, T. A., Seager, S., Barry, R. K., Hearty, T., et al. (2011) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2011.0642 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
“In general, the model described by Tinetti et al. (2006a) is significantly brighter than our new model, with the most extreme discrepancy occurring at 0.5 m m in the crescent view, where the Tinetti et al. model is about 400% brighter than our new model.”
InfluentialSelf-citationKiang, N., Segura, A., Tinetti, G., Jee, G., Blankenship, R., Cohen, M., Siefert, J., Crisp, D., & Meadows, V. (2007) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Self-citationDisequilibrium biosignatures over Earth history and implications for detecting exoplanet life
Krissansen-Totton, J., Olson, S., & Catling, D. C. (2018) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aao5747 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Reflections on O <sub>2</sub> as a Biosignature in Exoplanetary Atmospheres
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“This effect produces a 2% variation in Earth’s diskaveraged spectrum, as vegetated hemispheres of Earth replace ocean-dominated views (Arnold et al., 2002; MontañésRodrı́guez et al., 2006; Tinetti et al., 2006b; Arnold, 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citationExoplanet Biosignatures: Observational Prospects
Fujii, Y., Angerhausen, D., Deitrick, R., Domagal-Goldman, S., Grenfell, J. L., Hori, Y., Kane, S. R., Pallé, E., Rauer, H., Siegler, N., et al. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2017.1733 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Spectropolarimetric signatures of Earth-like extrasolar planets
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“To allow the use of our flux and polarization spectrafor such applications, they will be made available at the CDS. Flux spectra of light reflected by Earth-like exoplanets have been presented before (e.g. by Tinetti et al. 2006b,a,c; Montañés-Rodrı́guez et al. 2006; Turnbull et al. 2006).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialBiosignatures as revealed by spectropolarimetry of Earthshine
Sterzik, M., Bagnulo, S., & Πάλλη, Ε. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10778 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Spectroscopy of planetary atmospheres in our Galaxy
Tinetti, G., Encrenaz, T. A., & Coustenis, A. (2013) · The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review · doi:10.1007/s00159-013-0063-6 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Self-citationDETECTING OCEANS ON EXTRASOLAR PLANETS USING THE GLINT EFFECT
Robinson, T. D., Meadows, V. S., & Crisp, D. (2010) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/721/1/l67 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Habitability of Proxima Centauri b: Environmental States and Observational Discriminants
Meadows, V. S., Arney, G., Schwieterman, E. W., Lustig‐Yaeger, J., Lincowski, A., Robinson, T., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Deitrick, R., Barnes, R. K., Fleming, D. P., et al. (2018) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2016.1589 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
“…more promising means for determining atmospheric pressure comes from measurements of collisional absorption from molecules such as N2 (Schwieterman et al., 2015b) and O2 (Tinetti et al., 2006; Pallé et al., 2009; Misra et al., 2014a), which are both seen in Earth’s disk-averaged spectrum.”
BackgroundSelf-citationExoplanet Biosignatures: Observational Prospects
Fujii, Y., Angerhausen, D., Deitrick, R., Domagal-Goldman, S. D., Grenfell, J. L., Hori, Y., Kane, S. R., Πάλλη, Ε., Rauer, H., Siegler, N., et al. (2018) · doi:10.7892/boris.126822 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Tides and the Evolution of Planetary Habitability
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<i>Darwin</i> —A Mission to Detect and Search for Life on Extrasolar Planets
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“2.2.3. fland, 0 — Scattering by Land Previous authors (Ford et al. 2001; Tinetti et al. 2006a, 2006b; Montañés-Rodrı́guez et al. 2006; Pallé et al. 2008; Oakley & Cash 2009) first classified the pixels on the surface into different surface types, and then computed the scattering due to each…”
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“So far, various authors have carried out simulations of scattered light curves of an Earth-twin (Ford et al. 2001; Tinetti et al. 2006a,b; Montañés-Rodŕıguez et al. 2006; Pallé et al. 2008; Oakley & Cash 2009; Arnold et al. 2009; Doughty & Wolf 2010; Fujii et al. 2010, 2011).”
BackgroundThe future of spectroscopic life detection on exoplanets
Seager, S. (2014) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1304213111 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
GLOBAL MAPPING OF EARTH-LIKE EXOPLANETS FROM SCATTERED LIGHT CURVES
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“…are discussed both via Earthshine observations (e.g. Woolf et al. 2002; Arnold et al. 2002; Montañés-Rodŕıguez et al. 2006) and simulations (Tinetti et al. 2006a,b; Montañés-Rodŕıguez et al. 2006). kawa h@tmu.ac.jp 1 Department of Physics, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Hachioji,…”
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Seager, S., & Bains, W. (2015) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.1500047 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Properties of an Earth-Like Planet Orbiting a Sun-Like Star: Earth Observed by the EPOXI Mission
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“The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) is commonly used for this purpose in Earth remote sensing (Ustin et al., 1999; Bannari et al., 2007) and has been applied to numerical simulations of Earth’s global spectrum (Tinetti et al., 2006b).”
Self-citationAtmospheric effects of stellar cosmic rays on Earth-like exoplanets orbiting M-dwarfs
Vakili, V. T., Grenfell, J. L., Grießmeier, J. ‐., & Rauer, H. (2015) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201425602 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
“Key studies that address biosignature detectability (e.g. Selsis 2000; Selsis et al. 2002; Des Marais et al. 2002; Segura et al. 2003, 2005; Tinetti et al. 2006; Ehrenreich et al. 2006; Kaltenegger et al. 2007; Kaltenegger & Traub 2009; Kaltenegger & Sasselov 2010; Rauer et al. 2011; Tessenyi et…”
BackgroundPerryman, M. A. C. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108304160.017 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Nonphotosynthetic Pigments as Potential Biosignatures
Schwieterman, E. W., Cockell, C. S., & Meadows, V. (2015) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2014.1178 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationA review of exoplanetary biosignatures
Grenfell, J. L. (2017) · Physics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2017.08.003 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Spectra of Earth-like Planets through Geological Evolution around FGKM Stars
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“However, features originating from below the cloud layers in the visible will be suppressed, particularly surface features like the VRE (Seager et al. 2005; Tinetti et al. 2006c; Rugheimer et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKawahara, H., & Fujii, Y. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.1088/2041-8205/739/2/l62 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“…potential biomarker by both Earth-shine observation (Woolf et al. 2002; Arnold et al. 2002; Seager et al. 2005; Montañés-Rodriguez et al. 2005; Montañés-Rodŕıguez et al. 2006; Hamdani et al. 2006) and simulations (Tinetti et al. 2006a,b; Montañés-Rodŕıguez et al. 2006; Arnold et al. 2009).”
BackgroundFujii, Y., Kawahara, H., Suto, Y., Fukuda, S., Nakajima, T., Livengood, T. A., & Turner, E. L. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/738/2/184 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“In addition to the forward calculation presented in Paper I, numerous other groups have simulated the scattered light of the Earth (Ford et al. 2001; Tinetti et al. 2006a, 2006b; MontañésRodrı́guez et al. 2006; Pallé et al. 2008; Oakley & Cash 2009; Arnold et al. 2009; Doughty & Wolf 2010;…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialOakley, P. H. H., & Cash, W. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/700/2/1428 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Detecting Oceans on Extrasolar Planets Using the Glint EffectPreprint
Crisp, D. (2016) · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Self-citationROTATIONAL VARIABILITY OF EARTH'S POLAR REGIONS: IMPLICATIONS FOR DETECTING SNOWBALL PLANETS
Cowan, N. B., Robinson, T. D., Livengood, T. A., Deming, D., Agol, E., A’Hearn, M. F., Charbonneau, D., Lisse, C. M., Meadows, V., Seager, S., et al. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/731/1/76 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“…models have been developed to anticipate how diurnal variations in disc-integrated light could be used to characterize Earth (Ford et al. 2001; Tinetti et al. 2006a,b; Pallé et al. 2008; Williams & Gaidos 2008; Oakley & Cash 2009; Fujii et al. 2010; Kawahara & Fujii 2010; Zugger et al. 2010;…”
BackgroundSelf-citationSensitivity of biomarkers to changes in chemical emissions in the Earth’s Proterozoic atmosphere
Grenfell, J. L., Gebauer, S., von Paris, P., Godolt, M., Hedelt, P., Patzer, A. B. C., Stracke, B., & Rauer, H. (2010) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2010.09.015 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“We remind however, that our study uses a cloud-free model, neglecting their influence on atmospheric spectra of Earth-like exoplanets (see e.g. Tinetti et al., 2006 and Kaltenegger et al., 2007).”
Perryman, M. A. C. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511994852.011 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Using Deep Space Climate Observatory Measurements to Study the Earth as an Exoplanet
Jiang, J. H., Zhai, A. J., Herman, J. R., Zhai, C., Hu, R., Su, H., Natraj, V., Li, J., Xu, F., & Yung, Y. L. (2018) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/aac6e2 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“Numerical models have also been developed to predict Earth’s reflected light spectrum and its variability (Ford et al. 2001; Tinetti et al. 2006).”
BackgroundLooking for the rainbow on exoplanets covered by liquid and icy water clouds
Karalidi, T., Stam, D. M., & Hovenier, J. W. (2012) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220245 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“An important factor that needs to be taken into account for future efforts to detect signatures of life on other planets is the possible inhomogeneity of the planetary surface and atmosphere (Tinetti et al. 2006, and references therein).”
Budaj, J., Kocifaj, M., Salmeron, R., & Hubený, I. (2015) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stv1711 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…atmosphere may have important effects on lunar eclipses or on the Earth transmission spectrum (Kocifaj 1994; Kocifaj & Horvath 2005; Garcı́a Muñoz & Pallé 2011; Garcı́a Muñoz et al. 2011; Pallé et al. 2011), as well as on the light curve and spectra of Earth (Tinetti et al. 2006; Stam 2008).”
BackgroundSanromá, E., Pallé, E., Parenteau, M. N., Kiang, N. Y.-L., Gutiérrez-Navarro, A. M., López, R. L., & Montañés-Rodríguez, P. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/780/1/52 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Another possible approach is through analysis of Earth’s observations obtained from remote-sensing platforms (e.g., Tinetti et al. 2006a; Cowan et al. 2011; Robinson et al. 2011; Fujii et al. 2013).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationClouds in the atmospheres of extrasolar planets
Kitzmann, D., Patzer, A. B. C., von Paris, P., Godolt, M., & Rauer, H. (2011) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201014343 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“Since the thermal emission of the planetary surface is described by black-body radiation of the corresponding surface temperature in our model, these kinds of eff cts cannot be investigated in this study (see e.g. Tinetti et al. 2006b, for discussion of theseeffects for Earth).”
BackgroundMethodLife and Light: Exotic Photosynthesis in Binary and Multiple-Star Systems
O'Malley-James, J. T., Raven, J. A., Cockell, C. S., & Greaves, J. S. (2012) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2011.0678 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Earthshine Observation of Vegetation and Implication for Life Detection on Other Planets
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Graham, R. J., & Pierrehumbert, R. T. (2020) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab9362 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“…have albedos approximately equal to that of their surface + clouds, suggesting a maximum of around 0.3 (based on Earth’s albedo in the vis- 24 ible (Tinetti et al. 2006)), whereas Venus-like planets would have visible-wavelength albedos > 0.9 due to efficient Rayleigh scattering by ∼100 bar of…”
BackgroundInfluentialPlanetary Environmental Signatures for Habitability and Life
Meadows, V. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74008-7_10 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationSanromá, E., Pallé, E., & Muñoz, A. G. (2013) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/766/2/133 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“The red-edge has been proposed as a possible biomarker in Earth-like planets (Tinetti et al. 2006c; Kiang et al. 2007a,b).”
BackgroundMethodvon Paris, P., Hedelt, P., Selsis, F., Schreier, F., & Trautmann, T. (2013) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220009 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“The possibility of constraining surface conditions and molecular absorption bands could be limited substantially by the presence of clouds (e.g., Tinetti et al. 2006; Kitzmann et al. 2011).”
BackgroundIS THE PALE BLUE DOT UNIQUE? OPTIMIZED PHOTOMETRIC BANDS FOR IDENTIFYING EARTH-LIKE EXOPLANETS
Krissansen‐Totton, J., Schwieterman, E. W., Charnay, B., Arney, G., Robinson, T. D., Meadows, V., & Catling, D. C. (2016) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/0004-637x/817/1/31 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationComputing apparent planetary magnitudes for The Astronomical Almanac
Mallama, A. D., & Hilton, J. L. (2018) · Astronomy and Computing · doi:10.1016/j.ascom.2018.08.002 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“The faintest magnitude cannot be accurately determined because the albedo function given by Tinetti et al. (2006) appears to approach zero as α approaches 180 o .”
BackgroundKaralidi, T., & Stam, D. M. (2012) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219297 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“The main difference with other codes for horizontally inhomogeneous planets (such as those used by Ford et al. 2001; Oakley & Cash 2009; Tinetti et al. 2006) is that it can be used to calculate not only the flux of reflected starlight but also its state (degree and direction) of polarization.”
Backgroundvon Paris, P., Hedelt, P., Selsis, F., Schreier, F., & Trautmann, T. (2013) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220009/pdf · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Karalidi, T., & Stam, D. M. (2012) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219297/pdf · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Detecting Tree-like Multicellular Life on Extrasolar Planets
Doughty, C. E., & Wolf, A. (2010) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2010.0495 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Descriptions of the physics of this planetary model and further information on the data sets are available in papers by Tinetti et al. (2006a) and Tinetti et al. (2005).”
InfluentialMallama, A. D., Krobusek, B. A., & Pavlov, H. (2016) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.09.023 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
MID-INFRARED PROPERTIES OF DISK AVERAGED OBSERVATIONS OF EARTH WITH AIRS
Hearty, T., Song, I., Kim, S., & Tinetti, G. (2009) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/693/2/1763 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“We have directly used observed spectra of Earth obtained with the AIRS to provide a detailed set of spectra to test existing models (Ford et al. 2001; Des Marais et al. 2002; Tinetti et al. 2005, 2006a, 2006b).”
MethodSelf-citationKawashima, Y., & Rugheimer, S. (2019) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ab14e3 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…to that of the surface can deepen molecular absorption features, while also obscuring features depending on the cloud properties (the altitude of the cloud layer and its fractional coverage; e.g., Tinetti et al. 2006a, 2006b; Kaltenegger et al. 2007; Kitzmann et al. 2011; Rugheimer et al. 2013).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGeoscience for Understanding Habitability in the Solar System and Beyond
Dehant, V., Debaille, V., Dobos, V., Gaillard, F., Gillmann, C., Goderis, S., Grenfell, J. L., Höning, D., Javaux, E. J., Karatekin, Ö., et al. (2019) · Space Science Reviews · doi:10.1007/s11214-019-0608-8 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Clouds in the atmospheres of extrasolar planets
Kitzmann, D., Patzer, A. B. C., von Paris, P., Godolt, M., & Rauer, H. (2011) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201117375 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“…surface characteristics, solar zenith angles, satellite viewing angles, cloud types, and measured atmospheric temperature profiles were used by Tinetti et al. (2006b) to calculate the synthetic reflection spectra over single points of the Earth surface with a line-by-line radiative…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialVariability due to climate and chemistry in observations of oxygenated Earth-analogue exoplanets
Cooke, G. J., Marsh, D. R., Walsh, C. M., Rugheimer, S., & Villanueva, G. L. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stac2604 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Using polarimetry to retrieve the cloud coverage of Earth-like exoplanets
Rossi, L., & Stam, D. M. (2017) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201730586 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Clouds can also hide biosignatures from the surface, in particular the so–called red-edge, the steep increase in the albedo of vegetation between the visible and the near infrared (Tinetti et al. 2006; Montañés-Rodríguez et al. 2006; Seager et al. 2005).”
BackgroundInfrared radiative transfer in atmospheres of Earth-like planets around F, G, K, and M stars
Vasquez, M., Schreier, F., Garcìa, S. G., Kitzmann, D., Patzer, B., Rauer, H., & Trautmann, T. (2013) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220566 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
The transit spectra of Earth and Jupiter
Irwin, P. G. J., Barstow, J. K., Bowles, N. E., Fletcher, L. N., Aigrain, S., & Lee, J.-M. (2014) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.08.005 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“of great interest to determine what we might actually deduce from the measured transit spectrum of a Solar System planet and a number of studies have been performed to investigate this. For example, Tinetti et al. (2006) modelled the disc-averaged spectrum of the Earth from 0.5 – 25 µm, looking at the effect of variou…”
BackgroundInfluentialSpectral and temporal variability of Earth observed in polarization
Sterzik, M. F., Bagnulo, S., Stam, D. M., Emde, C., & Manev, M. (2018) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834213 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“This region contains the molecular absorption bands O2-B (around 6900 Å), H2O (around 7200 Å), and O2-A (around 7600 Å), as well as the Vegetation Red Edge, the spectral region where the reflectivity of Earth’s vegetation sharply increases (Tinetti et al. 2006a).”
BackgroundEarthshine Observation of Vegetation and Implication for Life Detection on Other Planets
Arnold, L. (2008) · Space sciences series of ISSI · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-77516-6_23 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Earthshine as an illumination source at the Moon
Glenar, D. A., Stubbs, T. J., Schwieterman, E. W., Robinson, T. D., & Livengood, T. A. (2018) · Icarus · doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2018.12.025 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“This is an improved version of code originally developed to simulate the spectra of Earth-like exoplanets (Tinetti et al., 2006a, 2006b).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSpectral and temporal variability of Earth observed in polarization
Sterzik, M., Bagnulo, S., Stam, D. M., Emde, C., & Manev, M. (2019) · Springer Link (Chiba Institute of Technology) · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201834213/pdf · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Fujii, Y., Kimura, J., Dohm, J., & Ohtake, M. (2014) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2014.1165 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…( e.g. , Arnold et al. , 2002; Woolf et al. , 2002; Hamdani et al. , 2006; Turnbull et al. , 2006; Livengood et al. , 2011) and theoretically ( e.g. , Ford et al. , 2001; Des Marais et al. , 2002; Tinetti et al. , 2006a, 2006b; Kaltenegger et al. , 2010; Ro-binson, 2011; Robinson et al. , 2011).”
Detecting Oceans on Exoplanets with Phase-dependent Spectral Principal Component Analysis
Ryan, D. J., & Robinson, T. D. (2022) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ac4af3 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“D spectral Earth model (Tinetti et al. 2006a,b; Robinson et al. 2011).”
Planetary targets in the search for extrasolar oxygenic photosynthesis
Cockell, C. S., Raven, J. A., Kaltenegger, L., & Logan, R. C. (2009) · Plant Ecology & Diversity · doi:10.1080/17550870903329328 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Kitzmann, D., Patzer, A. B. C., von Paris, P., Godolt, M., & Rauer, H. (2011) · elib (German Aerospace Center) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1108.3274 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…surface characteristics, solar zenith angles, satellite viewing angles, cloud types, and measured atmospheric temperature profiles were used by Tinetti et al. (2006b) to calculate the synthetic reflection spectra over single points of the Earth surface with a line-by-line radiative…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMettler, J.-N., Quanz, S. P., Helled, R., Olson, S. L., & Schwieterman, E. W. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/acbe3c · Cited by 15 · see citing works
RECONSTRUCTING THE PHOTOMETRIC LIGHT CURVES OF EARTH AS A PLANET ALONG ITS HISTORY
Sanromá, E., & Πάλλη, Ε. (2011) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.1088/0004-637x/744/2/188 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Several authors have also attempted to model the diurnal photometric variability on an Earth-like planet (Ford et al. 2001; Tinetti et al. 2006a,b; Fujii et al. 2010), while other authors such as Woolf et al. (2002), Arnold et al. (2002, 2009), Seager et al. (2005) and Montañés-Rodŕıguez et al.…”
BackgroundRemote Sensing of Potential Biosignatures from Rocky, Liquid, or Icy (Exo)Planetary Surfaces
Poch, O., Frey, J., Roditi, I., Pommerol, A., Jost, B., & Thomas, N. (2017) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2016.1523 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Today, and probably only since 470 million years ago (Labandeira, 2005), the red edge produced at 0.7 l m by vegetation is detectable from space in the disk-integrated spectrum of Earth (Sagan et al., 1993; Montan˜e´s-Rodrı´guez et al., 2006; Tinetti et al., 2006).”
InfluentialSurface and Temporal Biosignatures
Schwieterman, E. W. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_69 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Climates of Warm Earth-like Planets. III. Fractional Habitability from a Water Cycle Perspective
C, A. D. D. G., Way, M. J., Kiang, N. Y.-L., Aleinov, I., Puma, M. J., & Cook, B. I. (2019) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ab57fd · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“This is exemplified by many earthshine and Earth simulator studies that quantify detectability for different amounts of surface cover by vegetation by planetary phase (Seager et al. 2005; Montañés-Rodríguez et al. 2006; Tinetti et al. 2006; Arnold 2008).”
BackgroundSelf-citationKofman, V., Villanueva, G. L., Fauchez, T. J., Mandell, A. M., Johnson, T. M., Payne, A., Latouf, N., & Kelkar, S. (2024) · The Planetary Science Journal · doi:10.3847/psj/ad6448 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Characterizing Extrasolar Terrestrial Planets with Reflected, Emitted and Transmitted Spectra
Tinetti, G. (2006) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1007/s11084-006-9039-0 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationMettler, J.-N., Konrad, B. S., Quanz, S. P., & Helled, R. (2024) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/ad198b · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…size, and altitude as well as multi-layered cloud coverage and cloud sea-sonality all a ff ect the resulting spectrum significantly (e.g., Des Marais et al. 2002; Tinetti et al. 2006a,b; Hearty et al. 2009; Kitzmann et al. 2011; Rugheimer et al. 2013; Vasquez et al. 2013; Komacek et al. 2020).”
BackgroundLimbach, M. A., Lustig‐Yaeger, J., Vanderburg, A. M., Vos, J. M., Heller, R., & Robinson, T. D. (2024) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ad4a75 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The duration and cadence of these observations are amenable to the construction of re fl ected light light curves ( Ford et al. 2001; Tinetti et al. 2006; Cowan et al. 2009; Lustig-Yaeger et al. 2018; Strauss et al. 2024 ) .”
BackgroundPlanet Earth in reflected and polarized light
Roccetti, G., Emde, C., Sterzik, M., Manev, M., Seidel, J. V., & Bagnulo, S. (2025) · Astronomy and Astrophysics · doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202554167 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Earth as a Proxy Exoplanet: Simulating DSCOVR/EPIC Observations Using the Earth Spectrum Simulator
Gu, L., Zeng, Z., Fan, S., Natraj, V., Jiang, J. H., Crisp, D., Yung, Y. L., & Hu, Y. (2022) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac5e2e · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Efforts have been made to model light curves of the Earth using RT models (Tinetti et al. 2006a, 2006b; Robinson et al. 2011; Feng et al. 2018; Batalha et al. 2019), but none of them have been validated against observations with a time range longer than a few days.”
MethodSelf-citationEarthshine observations of an inhabited planet
Pallé, E. (2010) · EAS Publications Series · doi:10.1051/eas/1041041 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“However, this would be an ambiguous biosignature on an exoplanet, because vegetation is not the only possible source of the reflectivity bump (Tinetti et al. 2006).”
BackgroundSanghavi, S., West, R. A., & Jiang, J. H. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abcd99 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Photometric Variability in Earthshine Observations
Langford, S. V., Wyithe, J. S. B., & Turner, E. L. (2009) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2008.0267 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“However, rotation of land (which scatters light diffusively) onto the location of this bright spot inter-rupts the specular reflection, which leads to a predicted decrease in earthshine flux (Ford et al., 2001; Tinetti et al., 2006; Williams and Gaidos, 2008).”
On the Growth and Detectability of Land Plants on Habitable Planets around M Dwarfs
Cui, D., Tian, F., Wang, Y., Li, C. S., Yu, C., & Yu, L. (2017) · Astrobiology · doi:10.1089/ast.2016.1617 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…Raven (2002) proposed that oxygenic photosynthesis developed on HPs around M dwarfs could use three or four photons instead of the two photons used by terrestrial ox-ygenic phototrophs, which would redshift VRE features on exoplanets around M dwarfs toward near IR (Tinetti et al., 2006b, 2006c).”
Geoscience for Understanding Habitability in the Solar System and Beyond
Dehant, V., Debaille, V., Dobos, V., Gaillard, F., & Gillmann, C. (2019) · Repository of the Academy's Library (Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) · Cited by 7 · see citing works
EARTHSHINE OBSERVATIONS OF AN INHABITED PLANETPreprint
Πάλλη, Ε. (2012) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Radiative transfer and inversion codes for characterizing planetary atmospheres: an overview
Rengel, M., & Adamczewski, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences · doi:10.3389/fspas.2023.1176740 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Doughty, C. E., & Wolf, A. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0167188 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“nce of life on Earth based on a series of methodologies that are called by some, the “Sagan criteria for life”. Since then, interest in astrobiology has grown with the advancement of these techniques [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]. The Kepler satellite, which has been used to discover over 962 confirmed exoplanets, has…”
MethodPhotosynthetic Fluorescence from Earthlike Planets around Sunlike and Cool Stars
Komatsu, Y., Hori, Y., Kuzuhara, M., Kosugi, M., Takizawa, K., Narita, N., Omiya, M., Kim, E., Kusakabe, N., Meadows, V., et al. (2023) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aca3a5 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Moreover, cloud coverage obscures the VRE features as well as atmospheric features on exoplanets (Seager et al. 2005; Tinetti et al. 2006; Kaltenegger et al. 2007).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationThe Detectability of Earth’s Biosignatures Across Time
Πάλλη, Ε. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-55333-7_70 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Terrestrial Planet Optical Phase Curves. I. Direct Measurements of the Earth
Cock, R. D., Livengood, T. A., Stam, D. M., Lisse, C. M., Hewagama, T., & Deming, D. (2021) · The Astronomical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-3881/ac3234 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“They use the (steeper) phase function for the “realistic clouds” case plotted in Figure 7 of Tinetti et al. (2006b), and therefore they have higher values than the ones reported here.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNew earth system model for optical performance evaluation of space instruments
Ryu, D., Kim, S.-W., & Breault, R. P. (2017) · Optics Express · doi:10.1364/oe.25.004926 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Surface and Temporal Biosignatures
Schwieterman, E. W. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-30648-3_69-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Composition and Internal Dynamics of Super‐Earths
Valencia, D. (2013) · doi:10.1002/9781118529492.ch9 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Tinetti, G., Meadows, V. S., Crisp, D., Kiang, N. Y., Kahn, B. H., Bosc, E., Fishbein, E., Velusamy, T., & Turnbull, M.
- Affiliations
- California Institute of Technology (US)
- Goddard Institute for Space Studies (US)
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Astrobiology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2006-12
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 881-900
- ISSN
- 1531-1074 (ISSN-L)
- 1557-8070
- OpenAlex
- W2036448275
- Cited by
- 136
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 35 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 5 · 2014: 4 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 3.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Astrobiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Space Science and Extraterrestrial Life
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Stellar, planetary, and galactic studies
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Planetary Science and Exploration
- Keywords
- biosignatures, light curves, synthetic spectra, clouds, red edge, vegetation, phytoplankton, atmospheric models, surface albedo, Terrestrial Planet Finder, Darwin mission, viewing geometry, phase dependence, mid-infrared, near-infrared
- MeSH terms
- Atmosphere, Light, Models, Theoretical, Spectrum Analysis, Earth, Planet, Exobiology, Spectroscopy, Near-Infrared
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