Cited by 278Traumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular DisturbancesTraumatic Brain Injury ResearchNeuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms

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In Situ Detection of Inflammatory Mediators in Post Mortem Human Brain Tissue after Traumatic Injury

Frugier, Tony, Morganti-Kossmann, Maria Cristina, O'Reilly, David, McLean, Catriona A.·2010·Journal of Neurotrauma

DOI 10.1089/neu.2009.1120

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Abstract

Little is known about the molecular events following severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) in humans and to date there are no efficient therapies for the treatment of patients. In this study, the first of its kind in human tissue, a total of 21 post mortem trauma brain samples were analyzed. The inflammatory response within the brain tissue was explored by measuring the expression of various inflammatory cytokines at the mRNA and protein levels. These mediators were interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interferon (IFN)-gamma, and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF). This study shows for the first time in human brain tissue that 1) pro-inflammatory mediator protein levels are significantly increased in situ following acute brain injury while anti-inflammatory cytokines protein levels remain unchanged; 2) the cerebral inflammatory response begins within minutes of acute TBI, much earlier than previously thought; 3) IL-6, IL-8, TNF-alpha, and IL-1beta mRNA levels are significantly increased following injury; 4) the rise in cytokine protein level coincides with increased levels of their mRNAs suggesting that traumatic injury elicits an immediate cerebral inflammatory response. Altogether these data confirm and extend previous observations on the release of cytokines in the cerebrospinal fluid of severe TBI patients. Finally, this study highlights the need to characterize the cell source of cytokines and elucidate their mode of action.

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Blood–Brain Barrier Breakdown and Astrocyte Reactivity Evident in the Absence of Behavioral Changes after Repeated Traumatic Brain Injury
Dunn, C., Sturdivant, N. M., Venier, S. M., Ali, S. F., Wolchok, J., & Balachandran, K. (2021) · Neurotrauma Reports · doi:10.1089/neur.2021.0017 · Cited by 21
“A previous study reported markedly higher IL-6 levels in postmortem patients post-injury that led to death.(51) MMP9, a remodeling protein expressed by endothelial cells, was observed.”
Result
Immunity impacts cognitive deficits across neurological disorders
Shaw, B. C., Anders, V., Tinkey, R. A., Habean, M. L., Brock, O. D., Frostino, B. J., & Williams, J. L. (2023) · Journal of Neurochemistry · doi:10.1111/jnc.15999 · Cited by 27
“TNF α transcript is also present in postmortem TBI pa - tient brains that succumbed as early as 17 min post-injury (Frugier et al., 2010 ).”
Neuroprotection strategies in traumatic brain injury: Studying the effectiveness of different clinical approaches
Buccilli, B., Alan, A., Aljeradat, B., Shahzad, A., Almealawy, Y. F., Chisvo, N. S., Ennabe, M., & Weinand, M. E. (2024) · Surgical Neurology International · doi:10.25259/sni_773_2023 · Cited by 22
“[5,22,25,39,59] Astrogliosis is facilitated by persistent and delayed neuroinflammation, which also attracts macrophages and promotes the activation of local microglia.”
Background
Cerebellar Gene Expression following Human Traumatic Brain Injury
Staffa, K., Ondruschka, B., Franke, H., & Dressler, J. (2012) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2011.2246 · Cited by 20
Using the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio to predict outcomes in pediatric patients with traumatic brain injury
Kimball, R., Shachar, E., Eyerly‐Webb, S. A., Patel, D. M., & Spader, H. S. (2020) · Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2020.105772 · Cited by 24
Neuroinflammation after SCI: Current Insights and Therapeutic Potential of Intravenous Immunoglobulin
Gillespie, E. R., & Ruitenberg, M. J. (2020) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2019.6952 · Cited by 20
Effect of siRNA-induced inhibition of IL-6 expression in rat cerebral gliocytes on cerebral edema following traumatic brain injury
Xu, B., Yu, D., & Liu, F. (2014) · Molecular Medicine Reports · doi:10.3892/mmr.2014.2462 · Cited by 19
“…and activation of inflammatory cells (4,19); (iii) increases in the proliferation and reparation of cerebral glial cells in damaged brain regions (5,22); (iv) induction of complications associated with TBI, as well as multiple organ failure, for example, increases in IL-6 have a negative muscle…”
Inflammatory Signaling Induces Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Neuronal Death in Traumatic Brain Injury via Downregulation of OXPHOS Genes
Dong, H., Zhang, H., Cai, L., Ye, Q., Wang, H., Liu, B., Zhang, W., & Li, J. (2024) · Biochemical Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10528-024-10980-6 · Cited by 20
“The release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α ), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 β ), and interleukin-6 (IL-6), initiates a complex cascade of events that can further damage neuronal cells (Frugier et al. 2010; Hellewell et al. 2016).”
Traumatic Brain Injury in Children: Glial fibrillary Acidic Protein and Clinical Outcomes.
Ryan, E., Kelly, L. A., Stacey, C., Duff, E., Huggard, D., Leonard, A., Boran, G. P., McCollum, D., Doherty, D., Bolger, T., et al. (2022) · PubMed · doi:10.1097/pec.0000000000002527 · Cited by 5
“Recently, the management of PCS has been directed toward defining subtypes of TBI19 with a targeted approach for a heterogenous the etiology ofmTBI.”
BackgroundInfluential
Melatonin regulates endoplasmic reticulum stress in diverse pathophysiological contexts: A comprehensive mechanistic review
Chuffa, L. G. D. A., Seiva, F. R. F., Silveira, H. S., Cesário, R. C., Tonon, K. D. S., Simão, V. A., Zuccari, D. A. P. D. C., & Reiter, R. J. (2024) · Journal of Cellular Physiology · doi:10.1002/jcp.31383 · Cited by 18
Evidence for the recruitment of autophagic vesicles in human brain after stroke
Frugier, T., Taylor, J. M., McLean, C., Bye, N., Beart, P. M., Devenish, R. J., & Crack, P. J. (2016) · Neurochemistry International · doi:10.1016/j.neuint.2016.02.016 · Cited by 18
“2 Immunohistochemistry Human brain paraffin embedded sections (7 μm) were examined to determine the expression and localization of LC3 and SQSTM1 using methods previously described on human postmortem brain tissue (Frugier et al., 2010).”
Method
The immunological landscape of traumatic brain injury: insights from pathophysiology to experimental models
Abikenari, M. A., Ha, J. H., Liu, J., Ren, A. L., Cho, K. B., Lim, J., Kim, L. H., Medikonda, R. T., Choi, J. H., & Lim, M. K. (2025) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2025.1668480 · Cited by 18
Novel, thalidomide-like, non-cereblon binding drug tetrafluorobornylphthalimide mitigates inflammation and brain injury
Lecca, D., Hsueh, S., Luo, W., Tweedie, D., Kim, D. S., Baig, A. M., Vargesson, N., Kim, Y. K., Hwang, I., Kim, S., et al. (2023) · Journal of Biomedical Science · doi:10.1186/s12929-023-00907-5 · Cited by 17
Acute and Persistent Alterations of Cerebellar Inflammatory Networks and Glial Activation in a Rat Model of Pediatric Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
Fraunberger, E. A., DeJesus, P., Zanier, E. R., Shutt, T. E., & Esser, M. J. (2019) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2019.6714 · Cited by 19
Doxycycline alleviates acute traumatic brain injury by suppressing neuroinflammation and apoptosis in a mouse model
Marjani, S., Zırh, S., Sever, M., Cakir-Aktas, C., Muftuoglu, S. F., & Mut, M. (2021) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2021.577672 · Cited by 15
Peptidergic Drugs For the Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury
Alvarez, X. A., Figueroa, J., & Muresanu, D. F. (2013) · Future Neurology · doi:10.2217/fnl.12.95 · Cited by 17
“Similar elevations of proinflammatory cytokines without upregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines were also found in post-mortem brain tissue, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood of TBI patients.([66,67]) Activated microglia have been observed in human TBI brains from 3 days after injury([18]) and, as assessed by PE…”
Background
The role of IL-6 in TBI and PTSD, a potential therapeutic target?
Monsour, M., Croci, D. M., & Agazzi, S. (2022) · Clinical Neurology and Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/j.clineuro.2022.107280 · Cited by 18
The importance of behavioral interventions in traumatic brain injury
Buccilli, B., Alan, A., Aljeradat, B., Shahzad, A., Almealawy, Y. F., Chisvo, N. S., Ennabe, M., & Weinand, M. E. (2024) · Surgical Neurology International · doi:10.25259/sni_776_2023 · Cited by 14
“[30,34,38,55,68,69,85,88,98] ese secondary injury mechanisms [Figure 1] offer a prolonged therapeutic window to intervene.”
Background
Therapeutic Targets for Neuroprotection and/or Enhancement of Functional Recovery Following Traumatic Brain Injury
Kelso, M. L., & Pauly, J. R. (2011) · Progress in molecular biology and translational science · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-385506-0.00003-x · Cited by 14
Intricate Role of the Cyclic Guanosine Monophosphate Adenosine Monophosphate Synthase-Stimulator of Interferon Genes (cGAS-STING) Pathway in Traumatic Brain Injury-Generated Neuroinflammation and Neuronal Death
Kumari, D., Kaur, S., & Dandekar, M. P. (2024) · ACS Pharmacology & Translational Science · doi:10.1021/acsptsci.4c00310 · Cited by 14
How repetitive traumatic injury alters long-term brain function
Dhillon, N. K., Linaval, N. T., O’Rourke, J. G., Barmparas, G., Yang, A. R., Cho, N., Shelest, O., & Ley, E. J. (2020) · The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care · doi:10.1097/ta.0000000000002811 · Cited by 13
Defining New Research Questions and Protocols in the Field of Traumatic Brain Injury through Public Engagement: Preliminary Results and Review of the Literature
Hasan, S., Chari, A., Ganau, M., & Uff, C. E. G. (2019) · Emergency Medicine International · doi:10.1155/2019/9101235 · Cited by 13
Temporal Profile of Cerebrospinal Fluid, Plasma, and Brain Interleukin-6 After Normothermic Fluid-Percussion Brain Injury: Effect of Secondary Hypoxia
Chatzipanteli, K., Vitarbo, E. A., Alonso, O. F., Bramlett, H. M., & Dietrich, W. D. (2012) · Therapeutic Hypothermia and Temperature Management · doi:10.1089/ther.2012.0016 · Cited by 13
“Recent experimental and clinical studies have reported a positive correlation between IL-6 levels and injury severity and prognosis (Tarkowski et al., 1995; Juttler et al., 2002; Woiciechowsky et al., 2002; Minambres, et al., 2003; Frugier et al., 2010; Leyet et al., 2011).”
Background
Prognostic Value of Serum Procalcitonin Based Model in Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Patients
Wang, R., Hua, Y., He, M., & Xu, J. (2022) · Journal of Inflammation Research · doi:10.2147/jir.s358621 · Cited by 12
“Finally, the concentration of PCT in CSF which might reflect the degree of neural inflammation was not tested and, therefore, we could not analyze the relationship between serum PCT and CSF PCT.”
Human neural stem cells restore spatial memory in a transgenic Alzheimer’s disease mouse model by an immunomodulating mechanism
Chen, K. S., Noureldein, M. H., McGinley, L. M., Hayes, J. M., Rigan, D. M., Kwentus, J. F., Mason, S. N., Mendelson, F. E., Savelieff, M. G., & Feldman, E. L. (2023) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2023.1306004 · Cited by 14
Lithium inhibits tryptophan catabolism via the inflammation‐induced kynurenine pathway in human microglia
Göttert, R., Fidzinski, P., Kraus, L., Schneider, U. C., Holtkamp, M., Endres, M., Gertz, K., & Kronenberg, G. (2021) · PubMed · doi:10.17169/refubium-36739 · Cited by 12
Neuroprotective Potential of Bacopa monnieri: Modulation of Inflammatory Signals
Reale, M., Costantini, E., Jarlapoodi, S., Serra, F., Aielli, L., Khan, H. Z., Belwal, T., & Falasca, K. (2022) · CNS & Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/1871527321666220111124047 · Cited by 11
Effects of Current Psychotropic Drugs on Inflammation and Immune System
Bhatt, S., Dhar, A. K., Samanta, M. K., & Suttee, A. (2023) · Advances in experimental medicine and biology · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-7376-5_18 · Cited by 12
A highly bioavailable curcumin formulation ameliorates inflammation cytokines and neurotrophic factors in mice with traumatic brain injury
ŞAKUL, A. A., Balçıkanlı, Z., Ateş, N., Orhan, C., Şahin, N., Tuzcu, M., Juturu, V., Kılıç, E., & Şahin, K. (2024) · Chemical Biology & Drug Design · doi:10.1111/cbdd.14439 · Cited by 11
“In the study, curcumin formulations decreased IL-6 levels, which, while undetectable in a healthy brain, become upregulated and secreted after TBI (Frugier et al., 2010).”
Background
Targeting neuroinflammation: 3-monothiopomalidomide a new drug candidate to mitigate traumatic brain injury and neurodegeneration
Hsueh, S., Parekh, P., Batsaikhan, B., Vargesson, N., Tweedie, D., Luo, W., Patel, C., Liu, D., McDevitt, R. A., Baig, A. M., et al. (2025) · Journal of Biomedical Science · doi:10.1186/s12929-025-01150-w · Cited by 10
Post-injury conditioning with lipopolysaccharide or lipooligosaccharide reduces inflammation in the brain
Bingham, D., John, C. M., Levin, J., Panter, S. S., & Jarvis, G. A. (2013) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.12.009 · Cited by 11
“Previous in situ analyses of human brain tissue post mortem after TBI for protein and mRNA of inflammatory cytokines including IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IFN-γ, GM-CSF, and TNF-α showed increased levels within minutes and significant elevations after 6 h which persisted for days (Frugier et al., 2010).”
Acute inhalation of combustion smoke triggers neuroinflammation and persistent anxiety-like behavior in the mouse
Gorgun, M. F., Zhuo, M., Cortez, I., Dineley, K. T., & Englander, E. W. (2017) · Inhalation Toxicology · doi:10.1080/08958378.2018.1432728 · Cited by 10
“…remained unchanged, suggesting that delayed manifestations of smoke inhalation, do not involve acute inflammatory responses that are typically associated with marked increases in IL-6 levels (Frugier et al., 2010; Yin et al., 2017), but rather are consistent with chronic inflammatory condition.”
Background
Neuroimmune activation is associated with neurological outcome in anoxic and traumatic coma
Sarton, B., Tauber, C., Fridman, E. A., Péran, P., Riu, B., Vinour, H., David, A., Geeraerts, T., Bounes, F. V., Minville, V., et al. (2024) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awae045 · Cited by 13
“…thalamic accumulation and activation of glial cells has been re-ported in post-mortem specimens from patients who died from either acute traumatic 11 or anoxic 12 brain injury, and animal models studies have identified early inflammatory processes in both traumatic 13 and anoxic 14 conditions,…”
The kynurenine pathway in traumatic brain injuries and concussion
Dehhaghi, M., Heng, B., & Guillemin, G. J. (2023) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2023.1210453 · Cited by 10
“It has been previously reported that the levels of pro-inflammatory molecules, particularly IL-6, IFN-γ, TNF-α, and GM-CSF, are significantly increased in TBI within early minutes of injury, suggesting an immediate inflammatory response (50).”
Background
Evaluating the effect of post-traumatic hypoxia on the development of axonal injury following traumatic brain injury in sheep.
Sharkey, J. M., Quarrington, R., Krieg, J. L., Kaukas, L., Turner, R., Leonard, A., Jones, C. F., & Corrigan, F. (2023) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148475 · Cited by 9
“This contrasts with the increased pro-inflammatory cytokines previously reported following all severities of TBI both clinically and experimentally (Goodman et al., 1990; Feuerstein et al., 1998; Frugier et al., 2010; Di Battista et al., 2016; Baratz et al., 2015).”
Drug- and cell-based therapies for targeting neuroinflammation in traumatic brain injury
Borlongan, C., Kaelber, S., & Pantcheva, P. (2016) · Neural Regeneration Research · doi:10.4103/1673-5374.193231 · Cited by 10
“Following the acute injury, activity of pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1 and IL-6 rise, followed by increases in tumor necrosis factor (TNF), IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) in the ensuing weeks after injury (Frugier et al., 2010).”
BackgroundInfluential
Soluble Urokinase-Type Plasminogen Activator Receptor and Inflammatory Biomarker Response with Prognostic Significance after Acute Neuronal Injury – a Prospective Cohort Study
Sajanti, A., Hellström, S., Bennett, C., Srinath, A., Jhaveri, A., Cao, Y. J., Takala, R. S. K., Frantzén, J., Koskimäki, F., Falter, J., et al. (2024) · Inflammation · doi:10.1007/s10753-024-02185-1 · Cited by 9
“TNFα and IL-1β were included because they are widely studied inflammatory molecules, well-known for their significant roles in mediating neuro-inflammation and neuronal damage [25–33].”
Tetrahedral framework nucleic acids promote cognitive impairment recovery post traumatic brain injury
Wang, Y., Jia, W., Zhu, J., Xu, R., & Lin, Y. (2022) · Chinese Chemical Letters · doi:10.1016/j.cclet.2022.107746 · Cited by 9
Effects of antifibrinolytics on systemic and cerebral inflammation after traumatic brain injury
Wallen, T. E., Singer, K. E., Baucom, M. R., England, L. G., Schuster, R. M., Pritts, T. A., & Goodman, M. D. (2022) · The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care · doi:10.1097/ta.0000000000003607 · Cited by 9
Prolonged and intense neuroinflammation after severe traumatic brain injury assessed by cerebral microdialysis with 300 kDa membranes
Cederberg, D., Visse, E., Marklund, N., & Siesjö, P. (2023) · Journal of Neuroimmunology · doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2023.578020 · Cited by 9
Catastrophic consequences: can the feline parasite Toxoplasma gondii prompt the purrfect neuroinflammatory storm following traumatic brain injury?
Baker, T. L., Sun, M., Semple, B. D., Tyebji, S., Tonkin, C. J., Mychasiuk, R., & Shultz, S. R. (2020) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-020-01885-3 · Cited by 11
Emerging Trends in the Use of Therapeutic Hypothermia as a Method for Neuroprotection in Brain Damage (Review)
Usmanov, E. S., Chubarova, M. A., & Saidov, S. K. (2020) · Современные технологии в медицине · doi:10.17691/stm2020.12.5.11 · Cited by 8
“Release of intracellular DNA and dying cell debris into the extracellular space and secretion of additional damage-associated molecular patterns trigger production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (increased levels of TNF, INF-γ, and IL-6) [46, 47].”
Background
Diagnostic potential of IL6 and other blood-based inflammatory biomarkers in mild traumatic brain injury among children
Chiollaz, A.-C., Pouillard, V., Habre, C., Seiler, M., Romano, F., Spigariol, F., Schenk, C. R., Korff, C. M., Maréchal, F., Wyss, V., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2024.1432217 · Cited by 8
“Together with IL6, IL8 has been found to be increased in the acute stage of severe adult TBI (17).”
Background
Activity of a Novel Anti-Inflammatory Agent F-3,6′-dithiopomalidomide as a Treatment for Traumatic Brain Injury
Hsueh, S., Scerba, M. T., Tweedie, D., Lecca, D., Kim, D. S., Baig, A. M., Kim, Y. K., Hwang, I., Kim, S., Selman, W. R., et al. (2022) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines10102449 · Cited by 8
“Within minutes to hours after TBI, the mRNA and protein expressions of TNF-α are elevated in patients [37,38] and pre-clinical animal models [39,40], occurring before the presence of other cytokines and enhancing the process of leukocyte infiltration to the local injury site [41].”
Background
Staying in the game: a pilot study examining the efficacy of protective headgear in an animal model of mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI)
Candy, S., Ma, I., McMahon, J. M., Farrell, M., & Mychasiuk, R. (2017) · Brain Injury · doi:10.1080/02699052.2017.1363407 · Cited by 8
“A similar temporal profile is seen in terms of microglial activation, astrogliosis and axonal damage (31).”
Background
The Role of Cytokine Gene Polymorphisms in Rehabilitation Outcome After Traumatic Brain Injury
Guerini, F. R., Agliardi, C., Zanzottera, M., Caronni, A., Antolini, L., Derchi, C., Atzori, T., Bolognesi, E., Navarro, J., Clerici, M., et al. (2025) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells14141056 · Cited by 7
“To this end, we analyzed a panel of SNPs in the TNF-α , IL-6 , IL-6 receptor, IL-1 β , and IL-10 genes-cytokines suggested to be involved in the pathophysiology of TBI [16,17]- in patients diagnosed with subacute TBI who were enrolled in an intensive rehabilitation program.”

Authors: Frugier, T., Morganti-Kossmann, M. C., O'Reilly, D., & McLean, C. A.
Affiliations: The Alfred Hospital (AU)
National Trauma Research Institute, The Alfred Hospital and Department of Medicine Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
Corresponding author: Frugier, Tony
ORCID: Frugier, Tony
Morganti-Kossmann, Maria Cristina
McLean, Catriona A.
Venue: Journal of Neurotrauma
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2010-03
Volume: 27
Issue: 3
Pages: 497-507
ISSN: 0897-7151 (ISSN-L)
1557-9042
DOI: 10.1089/neu.2009.1120
OpenAlex: W2084674974
Cited by: 278
References: 50
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 14
FWCI: 4.47
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.liebertpub.com/nv/resources-tools/text-and-data-mining-policy/121/ (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Neurotrauma (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury and Neurovascular Disturbances
Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Traumatic Brain Injury Research
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Keywords: traumatic brain injury, neuroinflammation, inflammatory cytokines, postmortem brain, interleukin-6, interleukin-8, TNF-α, IL-1β, cytokine mRNA expression, human brain
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Brain, Brain Injuries, Diagnosis, Encephalitis, Female, Humans, Interferon-gamma, Interleukins, Male, Middle Aged, RNA, Messenger, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha, Biomarkers, Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor, Cytokines, Inflammation Mediators, Young Adult

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In Situ Detection of Inflammatory Mediators in Post Mortem Human Brain Tissue after Traumatic Injury

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