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Buddhism Challenged, Adopted, and in Disguise
Abstract
The arrival of Buddhism China during the first centuries of the common-era led to major changes in the Chinese religious landscape. Despite its foreign origins, Buddhism soon found Chinese adherents and by the fifth century was widespread and popular throughput China and among all social classes, from the royal courts to the aristocracy and the commoners. Some Chinese, however, viewed this popularity of Buddhism as challenging the fabric of Chinese society and culture. Indeed, many scholars explain the emergence of Daoism as a communal religion in medieval China as a response to Buddhism. The Chinese who rejected Buddhism emphasized that Buddhism was a religion of the foreign, and it was created by Laozi, the ancient Daoist sage, to “convert the barbarians.” This paper aims to examine a variety of interactions between Buddhists and Daoists in medieval China as they argued and debated their place in Chinese society.
Overview
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TL;DR
This chapter examines three Daoist responses to Buddhism in medieval China (5th–6th centuries): the polemical *huahu* ("conversion of the barbarians") discourse, the Lingbao scriptures' absorption of Buddhist material, and hybrid Buddho-Daoist stelae of the Northern Dynasties. Raz argues that even anti-Buddhist Daoist texts were deeply indebted to Buddhist narratives and terminology, and that at the local level the two religions were practiced simultaneously as complementary repertoires.
Key findings
- The *huahu* discourse held that Laozi went west and became (or created) the Buddha, making Buddhism a foreign teaching unfit for China; the *Huahu jing* attributed to Wang Fu circulated in the 4th century, was expanded from 1 to 10 *juan* by the early Tang, and was finally destroyed in the 13th century, surviving only in Dunhuang fragments and citations.
- Even polemical Daoist texts borrowed Buddhist sources: a passage in the *Xuanmiao neipian* (cited in Gu Huan's 467 CE *Yixia lun*) is closely based on Zhi Qian's *Foshuo taizi ruiying benqi jing* (T. 185), recast to subordinate the Buddha to Laozi; the *Santian neijie jing* (after 420 CE) correlates Laozi/left side/yang/life with Daoism and Śākyamuni/right side/yin/death with Buddhism, and labels Daoists "Great Vehicle" and Buddhists "Small Vehicle."
- The Lingbao *Five Ascendant Talismans* grafted the Buddhist ten directions onto the older eight-direction scheme; its Buddha and Bodhisattva names come verbatim from Zhi Qian's *Foshuo pusa benyejing* (T. 281), and its closing line quotes the *Vimalakīrti sutra* (T. 474). The Dunhuang manuscript P. 2440 is earlier and more Buddhist than the Daozang version DZ 671, where *fo* (Buddha) becomes *jiao/zhenren*, *cha* (kṣetra) becomes *guan*, and *sheli* (śarīra) becomes *shenguang*.
- Northern Dynasties stelae (480s–580s CE) show hybrid practice: on the Fan Nuzi stela (532 CE) the donor calls himself *daomin* on the front, *fodizi* on the left, and *dudu* on the back; the Shi Clan Stele (523 CE) has Daoist images on front/right and Buddhist on back/left, lists 198 names with a core community of 71 members (all Shi except two Liu), and its vow seeks the Dragon Flower assembly of Maitreya.
Methods
- Textual and philological analysis of medieval Daoist and Buddhist scriptures, comparing the Dunhuang manuscript P. 2440, the received Daozang version DZ 671, and citations in the *Wushang biyao* (WSBY, commissioned by Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou, 543–578 CE) to reconstruct the earlier, more Buddhist form of the Lingbao text.
- Epigraphic analysis of Northern Dynasties stelae from the Jing and Wei river valleys in Shaanxi, erected by clans (*jia*) or religious associations (*yi*), reading donor names, titles, and dedicatory vows.
- The chapter is a synthetic interpretive essay organized around three case types (rejection, disguised adoption, local hybridity), drawing on prior scholarship (Zürcher, Bokenkamp, Lü Pengzhi, Zhang Zexun, and others).
Limitations
- The paper states that the exact dating of textual changes is difficult ("The changes in the text probably date to the early Tang, but exact dating is difficult"), that it is often difficult to state which social entity a particular Daoist text represents, and that the precise relationship between subgroupings on the stelae "remains unclear."
- The author explicitly speculates about practice: it is "not quite clear what the practitioner was supposed to visualize" with *sheli*, and the interpretation of *sarira* becoming an in-life attainment is offered as speculation.
- Evident from the text: the analysis rests on a small number of illustrative cases (one Lingbao scripture, one stele examined in detail) rather than a systematic corpus, and the comparative closing remarks about Rome are posed as questions rather than demonstrated findings.
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Claims the paper makes
46 No basis given · 45 Own interpretation · 23 Sources not found · 23 Own result · 4 Not checked yet
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One of the most obvious Buddhist in uences in this text is the incorporation of the Buddhist cosmology of the ten directions onto an ancient ritual scheme that was based on the traditional Chinese cosmology of eight directions.”
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In the paper
“These names and epithets in Five Ascendant Talismans are taken verbatim from Zhi Qian's Foshuo pusa benyejing .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites T. 281
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In the paper
“The earlier part of the ritual instructions involves only eight talismans of the Eight Archivists (bashi 八史 ), personig7Fcations of the ancient Chinese cosmology of the eight trigrams.”
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In the paper
“This cosmological reformulation undergirds one of the core ritual procedures presented in the Five Ascendant Talismans that involves the laying out of talismans in the ten directions of space.”
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In the paper
“In another important change, the term sheli 舍 利 , which translates sarira , relics, the reg7Fned remains of a Buddha who had been cremated, has been replaced in the Daozang version by the Daoist term shenguang 神光 , which denotes glowing emanations from the body produced during meditation.”
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In the paper
“Close examination of these citations shows that the WSBY is much closer to the Dunhuang Manuscript P. 2440 than to the canonic version DZ 671.”
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In the paper
“We should recall that this section in DZ 671, the canonic version of the text, is quite different because it had undergone severe editing that replaced the Buddhist terminology with Daoist terms.”
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In the paper
“The term cha 剎 in P. 2440, the Chinese translation for ksetra , 'g7Feld, ' the realm of a particular Buddha, was replaced in DZ 671 by 'Hall' ( guan 館 Hall).”
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In the paper
“Thus, in the following passage, Buddha ( fo 佛 ) was consistently changed to 'teaching' ( jiao 教 ), 'Powers' ( zhong 眾 ), or 'Perfected Person' ( zhenren 真人 ).”
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In the paper
“Among the most intriguing hints of such intermingling are several stelae erected in the central region of China, between the Jing and Wei river valleys in Shaanxi, during the late Northern Dynasties (late g7Ffth to the late sixth century CE ).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [69]
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The term used in the Daozang version of the text, shenguag 神光 , refers to a notion of the physical body transformed into an ethereal, glowing, subtle body.”
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In the paper
“The textual differences between the Dunhuang text, the received canonical version, and the citations in WSBY show that P.2440 is earlier than DZ 671 and closer to the original text.”
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In the paper
“The line cited in the Five Ascendant Talismans is found in Zhi Qian's text (T. 474.14.530c3) but not in Dharmaraksa's translation.”
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In the paper
“In the Dunhuang version, closer to the original, this imagination is activated by the term sheli 舍 利 , which in Buddhist context translates sarira , relics, the reg7Fned remains of a Buddha who had been cremated.”
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In the paper
“The instructions also require the adept to visualize their bodies transforming and radiating colors.”
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In the paper
“This emanation is perceived as the reg7Fned essence of the body while still alive.”
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In the paper
“The Daoist author of Wucheng fu used two sutras translated by Zhi Qian 支謙 ( . 220- 252): (1) A substantial section of the ritual instructions examined in the following is based on Foshuo pusa benyejing 佛說菩薩本業經 [ Original Endeavors of the Bodhisattva ] T. 281; (2) the g7Fnal line of the text is: 'One who is able to display the meaning of the subtlety is like a lotus living within g7Fre.' This line”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [41]
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- Rests on an assumption: Textual similarities between a Daoist text and a Buddhist sutra indicate that the Daoist author used that Buddhist source.
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In the paper
“we should emphasize that the original text of the Five Ascendant Talismans simply did not refer to shenguang .”
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In the paper
“In the line immediately below his name, we g7Fnd three Buddhists ( fo dizi 佛弟子 ), two surnamed Liu and one whose surname is effaced but probably surnamed Shi.”
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In the paper
“These few lines discuss the ineffable qualities of the Dao, clearly alluding to stanza 14 of the Daode jing .”
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In the paper
“All the stelae include such inscriptions that typically express a communal vow for the beneg7Ft of the ancestors, family, and state, and often some theological elaboration of the motivation for erecting the stele.”
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In the paper
“The dedicatory inscription on Shi Clan Stele incorporates Daoist and Buddhist notions and terms and intriguingly seeks the arrival of two savior g7Fgures:”
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In the paper
“Among the best examples of such hybridity is the Shi Clan Stele 師氏碑 stele (dated to 523 CE ), which has Daoist images on the front and right sides, and Buddhist images on the back and left sides.”
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In the paper
“For instance, on the Fan Nuzi stela 樊奴子碑 , dating to 532 CE , Fan Nuzi refers to himself as Daoist ( daomin 道民 ) on the front face of the stele, as Buddhist ( fodizi 佛弟子 ) on the left face of the stele, as well as local military ofg7Fcial ( dudu 都督 ) on the back face of the stele.”
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In the paper
“the stelae are inscribed with Daoist and Buddhist images and with texts that indicate the dates and locations, dozens of names and titles of the donors, and vows ( yuan 願 ) that express the community's wishes and hopes for the beneg7Ft of the family, its ancestors to seven generations, its descendants, and the empire.”
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In the paper
“While there are 198 names listed on the stele, the dedicatory inscription tells us that the core community numbers 71 members.”
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In the paper
“However, in the g7Fnal lines of the dedicatory vow, the language and aspirations resume a more Buddhist tone:”
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In the paper
“By the principal Daoist image, on the yang face of the stele, we g7Fnd the names of the two main donors: Shi Huijun 師回雋 and Shi Zhenxing 師真興 .”
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In the paper
“First, I look at the development of the 'conversion of the barbarians' discourse that took on a new urgency during the g7Ffth century.”
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In the paper
“The impact of this text, and the discourse it spawned, was wide; and we g7Fnd extensive references to this discourse in Daoist texts from the g7Ffth century onward.”
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In the paper
“These texts are well known for their wholesale adoption of Buddhist ideology, terminology, and practice.”
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In the paper
“This religion is therefore inappropriate for China.”
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In the paper
“The turning point in this discourse is attributed in Buddhist sources to a Daoist named Wang Fu 王浮 , who after having been repeatedly defeated in court debates by the Buddhist monk Bo Yuan 帛遠 , composed the Scripture of the Conversion of the Barbarians [ Huahu jing 化胡經 ].”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [18]
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In the paper
“This discourse is often termed Huahu , 'Conversion of the Barbarian,' and it was quite pervasive in medieval Daoist texts and other writings.”
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In the paper
“Second, I examine the Lingbao 靈寶 (Numinous Treasure) scriptures, a Daoist scriptural and ritual tradition that appeared in the g7Ffth century.”
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In the paper
“Xiang Kai refers to those 'who say that Laozi entered the land of the 'western barbarians' ( yidi 夷狄 ) and became Buddha.'”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [10]
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In the paper
“By the early Tang dynasty (618-907 CE ), the original single juan of the text was expanded to 10 juan , incorporating various new mythological narratives and re ecting a more complex religious background.”
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In the paper
“The tone of the text was so polemical that the Scripture of the Conversion of the Barbarians was soon criticized and challenged by Buddhists, both in court debates and in a variety of writings from the g7Ffth century.”
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In the paper
“The more developed huahu narratives include two basic variants: (1) Laozi becomes the Buddha, either by instructing the foreign people after his departure from China or by being reborn as the historical Buddha; (2) Laozi dispatches Yin Xi to descend into the womb of Queen Maya and to be born as the Buddha.”
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although the attribution, and Wang Fu himself, may be g7Fctions invented by Buddhist polemicists, there is little doubt that a text entitled Huahu jing circulated in the fourth century.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [18]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The destruction was so complete that until the discovery of few fragmentary manuscripts at Dunhuang in the twentieth century, the only remnants of the Scripture of the Conversion of the Barbarians were citations preserved in a few Daoist compilations and in Buddhist polemical writings countering the Daoist claims.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Another critique of Buddhism was that it was a foreign teaching and unsuitable for China.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Some criticism focused on the renunciant life advocated by Buddhists, which threatened the family structure that was not only the social and political basis of the Chinese state but the underlying premise of the Ruist (Confucian) vision of the cosmos itself.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On the other hand, we need to remember that Buddhist in uences vary substantially among different Daoist texts, which we should see as representing different Daoist communities of practice.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Despite its foreign origins, Buddhism soon found Chinese adherents, and by the g7Ffth century was widespread and popular throughout China and among all social classes, from the royal courts to the aristocracy and the commoners.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [1]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Buddhists responded to the huahu texts with their own apologetic texts, in court debates, and in texts that presented opposite claims, even asserting that Confucius was a student of Buddha.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [3]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The Chinese who rejected Buddhism emphasized that Buddhism was a religion of the foreign people ( hu 胡 ), and it was created by Laozi, the ancient Daoist sage, to 'convert the barbarians' ( huahu 化胡 ).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [3]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“The texts associated with this notion of huahu were popular, and these ideas are found in many Daoist scriptures composed during this period.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [3]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Chinese authors began to challenge and criticize Buddhism almost as soon as Buddhists g7Frst arrived in China.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“At each juncture, the ofg7Fciants were to hold a zhai to revere the celestial writs ( 奉齋朝天文 ).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Among the clearest articulations of the cosmological distinctions that prove the unsuitability of Buddhism to China is the reformist Celestial Master text Inner Explanations of the Three Heavens , composed soon after 420 CE .”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In later versions of the Daoist narrative, the gestation period of the mother extends to 72 and 81 years, and the side from which the baby emerges shifts to the left.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The g7Frst version entitled Taishang wuji dadao ziran zhenyi wuchengfu shangjing 太上無極大道自然真一五稱符上經 , DZ 671, is included in the Daoist canon ( Daozang 道 藏 ).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Lingbao formulation recast the Buddhist repentance rite in bureaucratic terms and added four more days (the 1st, 18th, 24th, and 28th) to a total of ten.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Careful reading of the Lingbao scriptures, as I discuss elsewhere, reveal developments in the use of the term zhai from its older, generic sense of 'fast, abstinence, rite' to the more specialized meaning of 'Formalized Ritual Retreat.'”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to note that the Dunhuang manuscripts are far closer to the original texts than the Daozang versions.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas the huahu discourse expressed a complete rejection of Buddhism, while incorporating much Buddhist terminology and rhetoric, other Daoist discourses took a different path.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cosmological dichotomy between Daoism and Buddhism advanced in great detail in the Inner Explanations of the Three Heavens is clearly meant to prove the absolute unsuitability of Buddhism for the Chinese.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It appears, therefore, that the author of this Lingbao text was very familiar with Zhi Qian's translations and preferred them when possible.”
hedgedSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Stephen Bokenkamp has shown that the complex textual and ideological manipulations of Buddhist materials in the Lingbao Scriptures were not simply mimicry or plagiarism.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [35]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [36]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As the Lingbao scriptures were heavily redacted during the early Tang to remove the obvious Buddhist terminology, we may speculate that the original Lingbao scriptures appeared far more Buddhist than they do at present.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Evidently, in this section, the Daoist author of the ritual grafted Buddhist cosmology onto the ancient ritual form, albeit not too successfully.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As we see at the end of the text, the real contrast is between Daoism and Buddhism, personig7Fed by Laozi and Ś akya muni.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The g7Frst chapter of this text is a detailed history of Daoism, beginning with the emanation of the cosmos from primordial unity. The narrative proceeds to describe the appearance of humanity the text incorporating a complex huahu narrative.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the second chapter, the text turns to criticism of specig7Fc practices. Again borrowing the language of Buddhism, the text labels its own teachings as the Great Vehicle ( dasheng 大乘 = Mahayana) and those of its rivals as the Small Vehicle ( xiaosheng 小乘 = Hinayana ).”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The original form of the Lingbao scriptures were far more Buddhist both in terminology and perhaps also in the implications of this terminology.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“According to the Five Tablets in Red Script 赤書五篇 , one of the core texts of the Lingbao scriptures, in each of these ten days, the respective directional deities inspect the merits and faults of mortals and ghosts under their jurisdiction.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“As I discuss elsewhere, the anti-Buddhist rhetoric in this text may also hint at intra-Daoist debates.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [33]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [34]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We should note here that although the text refers to three Ways, there are in fact only two, as the Great Way of Inaction and the Great Way of Pure Contract are both forms of Daoism.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“In a similar vein, Lü Pengzhi has explored the dependence of the Lingbao ritual scheme, and particularly the Ten Days of Retreat ( zhai 齋 ) on the Buddhist rite of uposatha .”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [37]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [38]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [39]
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“After this initial birth, Laozi proceeds to create humanity and then proceeds to 'issue forth three Ways to teach the people of heaven.' These three Ways were correlated with the cosmological qualities of the people at their locales. Thus, 'in the Central Kingdom where the yang vapor is pure and bright,' Laozi initiated the Great Way of Inaction ( Wuwei dadao 無為大道 ). Outside this realm, in the 81”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The changes in the text probably date to the early Tang, but exact dating is difg7Fcult.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This scriptural corpus, which to a large extent continues to inform the current Daoist ritual system, is well known for its incorporation of Buddhist cosmology, terminology, concepts, and practices.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While this passage is no more than a Daoist caricature of Buddhist meditation practices, it stresses the distinction Daoists made between Buddhist practices and their own practice of visualization ( cun 存 ) of the 'perfected spirits' 真神 , the gods within the body.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cosmological argument in the g7Frst chapter of the Inner Explanations of the Three Heavens proves the primacy of Daoism, and specig7Fcally of Celestial Master Daoism.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Buddhist rite was performed on six days of each month (the 8th, 14th, 15th, 23rd, 29th, and 30th) and consisted of a recitation of the monastic code ( pratimoksa ) by the monks and nuns followed by individual confessions of sin.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Here, I focus on the Five Ascendant Talismans ( Wuchengfu 五稱符 ), one of the original Lingbao scriptures, which we are fortunate to have in two versions.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The current version of Wuchengfu in the Daozang consists of two juan , whereas the Dunhuang version is of one juan only ; thus, the division of the current text is also a later adjustment.”
plaindirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Buddho-Daoist stele of the Northern Dynasties show that in some communities, Buddhism and Daoism were accepted simultaneously, and adherents could approach the Dao and Buddha, or Maitreya, at the same time.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While reference to 'inner and outer' resonates with the huahu discourse discussed previously, the overall tenor of the passage is clearly based on ancient Daoist ideas:”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to these lines, Buddha and Dao are equivalent, and although apparently distinct, are unig7Fed at their source.”
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the best known of such adaptations of Buddhist ideas are in the Lingbao scriptures, this inscription shows that local Daoist communities such as this one were clearly using Buddhist p. 127 p. 128 and Daoist terminology within the same religious vocabulary.”
boostedcorrelationalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The terminology and notions of karma introduced by Buddhists to China had been adopted by various Daoist lineages by the fifth century CE.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“On a more comparative note, there does not seem to be cultural or religious developments in Europe that correspond to the emergence of Daoism with its variegated responses to Buddhism.”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
Textual similarities between a Daoist text and a Buddhist sutra indicate that the Daoist author used that Buddhist source.
“The Daoist author of Wucheng fu used two sutras translated by Zhi Qian 支謙 ( . 220- 252): (1) A substantial section of the ritual instructions examined in the following is based on Foshuo pusa benyejing 佛說菩薩本業經 [ Original Endeavors of the Bodhisattva ] T. 281; (2) the g7Fnal line of the text is: 'One who is able to display the meaning of the subtlety is like a lotus living within g7Fre.'”
The paper relies on this without support.
At the time of composition of the Lingbao scriptures, ca. 400 CE, Daoists had not yet established monasteries.
“We should also recall that at the time of composition of the Lingbao scriptures, ca. 400 CE , Daoists had not yet established monasteries”
The paper relies on this without support.
The terminology and notions of karma introduced by Buddhists to China had been adopted by various Daoist lineages by the fifth century CE.
“The terminology and notions of karma introduced by Buddhists to China, was by the g7Ffth century CE adopted by various Daoist lineages.”
Citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Assandri, F. (2022) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel13040347 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Raz, G.
- Corresponding author
- Raz, Gil
- Venue
- Oxford Scholarship Online
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press
- Published
- 2017-06-22
- OpenAlex
- W4247572929
- Cited by
- 1
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2022: 1
- FWCI
- 0.00
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Oxford University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Religious studies › Indian and Buddhist Studies
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › History › Chinese history and philosophy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Study and Philosophy of Religion
- Keywords
- Buddhism, Daoism, early Chinese Buddhism, Laozi, Chinese religious history, medieval China, religious conversion, foreign religions
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- Raz, G. (2017). Buddhism Challenged, Adopted, and in Disguise. Oxford Scholarship Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof%3Aoso/9780190278359.003.0008
