The DOI matches its Crossref record.
Social Perception and Social Reality: Why Accuracy Dominates Bias and Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Abstract
This book contests the received wisdom in the field of social psychology that suggests that social perception and judgment are generally flawed, biased, and powerfully self-fulfilling. The book reviews a wealth of real-world, survey, and experimental data collected over the last century to show that, in fact, social psychological research consistently demonstrates that biases and self-fulfilling prophecies are generally weak, fragile, and fleeting. Furthermore, research in the social sciences has shown stereotypes to be accurate. The book overturns the received wisdom concerning social perception in several ways. It critically reviews studies that are highly cited darlings of the bias conclusion and shows how these studies demonstrate far more accuracy than bias, or are not replicable in subsequent research. Studies of equal or higher quality, which have been replicated consistently, are shown to demonstrate high accuracy, low bias, or both. The book is peppered with discussions suggesting that theoretical and political blinders have led to an odd state of affairs in which the flawed or misinterpreted bias studies receive a great deal of attention, while stronger and more replicable accuracy studies receive relatively little attention. In addition, the book presents both personal and real-world examples (such as stock market prices, sporting events, and political elections) that routinely undermine heavy-handed emphases on error and bias but are generally indicative of high l…
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“SFPs are, however, neither pervasive nor all-powerful (Jussim 2012), and there are various conditions for them to occur (Snyder and Klein 2007).”
From What Is the Function of Confirmation Bias? (2022) · cites this paper as Jussim 2012
Citations
Cites
Still being checked.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Evaluating Effect Size in Psychological Research: Sense and Nonsense
Funder, D. C., & Ozer, D. J. (2019) · Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2515245919847202 · Cited by 3,295
Ajzen, I. (2015) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2014.883474 · Cited by 704
Political diversity will improve social psychological science
Duarte, J. L., Crawford, J. T., Stern, C., Haidt, J., Jussim, L. J., & Tetlock, P. E. (2014) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x14000430 · Cited by 604
Self-citationFunder, D. C. (2012) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721412445309 · Cited by 439
Wineburg, S., & McGrew, S. (2019) · Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811912101102 · Cited by 394
Canetto, S. S., & Chen, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.042 · Cited by 194
Moral psychology for the twenty-first century
Haidt, J. (2013) · Journal of Moral Education · doi:10.1080/03057240.2013.817327 · Cited by 221
Stereotype (In)Accuracy in Perceptions of Groups and Individuals
Jussim, L., Crawford, J., & Rubinstein, R. S. (2015) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721415605257 · Cited by 161
Self-citationGender Stereotypes of Personality
Löckenhoff, C. E., Chan, W., McCrae, R. R., Fruyt, F. D., Jussim, L. J., Bolle, M. D., Costa, P. T., Sutin, A. R., Realo, A., Allïk, J., et al. (2014) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022113520075 · Cited by 174
Self-citationAnti-profit beliefs: How people neglect the societal benefits of profit.
Bhattacharjee, A., Dana, J. D., & Baron, J. A. (2017) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000093 · Cited by 176
What Is the Function of Confirmation Bias?
Peters, U. (2022) · Erkenntnis · doi:10.1007/s10670-020-00252-1 · Cited by 236
Preference Change in Competitive Political Environments
Druckman, J. N., & Lupia, A. (2015) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-020614-095051 · Cited by 163
College and the “Culture War”: Assessing Higher Education’s Influence on Moral Attitudes
Broćić, M., & Miles, A. (2021) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00031224211041094 · Cited by 151
Jussim, L. J. (2015) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x1500062x · Cited by 307
Self-citationAccuracy of judging personality
Back, M., & Nestler, S. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316181959.005 · Cited by 87
The expressive rationality of inaccurate perceptions
Kahan, D. M. (2017) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x15002332 · Cited by 125
Zaki, J. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691613475454 · Cited by 125
Verweij, M., Senior, T. J., D, J. F. D., & Turner, R. (2015) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2015.00332 · Cited by 119
The base rate principle and the fairness principle in social judgment
Cao, J., & Banaji, M. (2016) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America · doi:10.1073/pnas.1524268113 · Cited by 93
Human social sensing is an untapped resource for computational social science
Galešić, M., de Bruin, W. B., Dalege, J., Feld, S. L., Kreuter, F., Olsson, H., Prelec, D., Stein, D. L., & van der Does, T. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03649-2 · Cited by 106
Implicit stereotypes and the predictive brain: cognition and culture in “biased” person perception
Hinton, P. R. (2017) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/palcomms.2017.86 · Cited by 99
Anvari, F., Kievit, R., Lakens, D., Pennington, C. R., Przybylski, A. K., Tiokhin, L., Wiernik, B. M., & Orben, A. C. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221091565 · Cited by 124
Culture and National Well-Being: Should Societies Emphasize Freedom or Constraint?
Harrington, J. R., Boski, P., & Gelfand, M. J. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127173 · Cited by 75
What are the chances you’re right about everything? An epistemic challenge for modern partisanship
Joshi, H. (2020) · Politics Philosophy & Economics · doi:10.1177/1470594x20901346 · Cited by 77
Young, J. T. N., & Weerman, F. (2013) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2013.60.3.334 · Cited by 78
Dissolving the epistemic/ethical dilemma over implicit bias
Puddifoot, K. (2017) · Philosophical Explorations · doi:10.1080/13869795.2017.1287295 · Cited by 70
A Model of Political Bias in Social Science Research
Honeycutt, N., & Jussim, L. J. (2020) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2020.1722600 · Cited by 64
Self-citationLippa, R. A. (2020) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-020-01643-9 · Cited by 57
What can experimental studies of bias tell us about real-world group disparities?
Cesario, J. (2021) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x21000017 · Cited by 63
Expectation effects: Pygmalion and the initial 20 years of research
Good, T. L., Sterzinger, N. K., & Lavigne, A. L. (2018) · Educational Research and Evaluation · doi:10.1080/13803611.2018.1548817 · Cited by 75
Are stereotypes accurate? A perspective from the cognitive science of concepts
Bian, L., & Cimpian, A. (2017) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x15002307 · Cited by 53
Carruthers, P. (2017) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-017-0354-3 · Cited by 43
Crawford, J. T., Duarte, J. L., Haidt, J., Jussim, L. J., Stern, C., & Tetlock, P. E. (2015) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x15000035 · Cited by 41
Self-citationWhat’s Wrong with Stereotypes?
Beeghly, E. (2021) · Social Theory and Practice · doi:10.5840/soctheorpract2021112111 · Cited by 42
The comprehensive approach to analyzing multivariate constructs
Sherman, R. A., & Serfass, D. G. (2014) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2014.05.002 · Cited by 43
Mars, Venus, or Earth? Sexism and the Exaggeration of Psychological Gender Differences
Zell, E., Strickhouser, J. E., Lane, T. N., & Teeter, S. R. (2016) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-016-0622-1 · Cited by 42
Dabach, D. B., Suárez‐Orozco, C., Hernández, S. J., & Brooks, M. D. (2017) · Journal of Latinos and Education · doi:10.1080/15348431.2017.1281809 · Cited by 41
How Ideology Has Hindered Sociological Insight
Martin, C. C. (2015) · The American Sociologist · doi:10.1007/s12108-015-9263-z · Cited by 36
Assessing accuracy in close relationships research
Stern, C., & West, T. V. (2017) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407517712901 · Cited by 33
Kranz, D., Nadarevic, L., & Erdfelder, E. (2019) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000457 · Cited by 33
Stereotyping: The Multifactorial View
Puddifoot, K. (2017) · Philosophical Topics · doi:10.5840/philtopics20174518 · Cited by 32
López-González, H., Estévez, A., & Griffiths, M. D. (2018) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-018-9799-2 · Cited by 32
Conversational Silencing of Racism in Psychological Science: Toward Decolonization in Practice
Durrheim, K. L. (2023) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916231182922 · Cited by 32
Dixon, J. (2017) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12181 · Cited by 36
Exaggerating Accessible Differences: When Gender Stereotypes Overestimate Actual Group Differences
Eyal, T., & Nicholas Epley, A. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167217713190 · Cited by 31
Geographic Variation in the Black-Violence Stereotype
Johnson, D. J., & Chopik, W. J. (2018) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550617753522 · Cited by 29
Ideological Bias in Social Psychological Research
Jussim, L. J., Crawford, J. T., Anglin, S. M., & Stevens, S. T. (2015) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315717104-12 · Cited by 29
Self-citationBias and Accuracy in the Evaluation of Confession Evidence
Lassiter, G. D., & Geers, A. L. (2004) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-38598-3_9 · Cited by 27
Political Bias in the Social Sciences: A Critical, Theoretical, and Empirical Review
Honeycutt, N., & Jussim, L. J. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-29148-7_5 · Cited by 27
Self-citationStewart‐Williams, S., Chang, C. Y. M., Wong, X. L., Blackburn, J. D., & Thomas, A. G. (2020) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12463 · Cited by 29
What's Wrong with Stereotyping?
Beeghly, E. (2025) · doi:10.1093/9780192565150.001.0001 · Cited by 25
Liberal Privilege in Academic Psychology and the Social Sciences
Jussim, L. J. (2012) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691612455205 · Cited by 25
Self-citationInferring Others' Hidden Thoughts: Smart Guesses in a Low Diagnostic World
Street, C. N. H., Bischof, W. F., Vadillo, M. A., & Kingstone, A. F. (2015) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.1904 · Cited by 43
Trusz, S. (2017) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-017-9418-6 · Cited by 27
Gender stereotypes underlie child custody decisions
Costa, L. L. F., Esteves, A. B. D., Kreimer, R., Struchiner, N., & Hannikainen, I. R. (2018) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2523 · Cited by 30
The Importance of Male Ejaculation for Female Sexual Satisfaction and Function
Burri, A. V., Buchmeier, J., & Porst, H. (2018) · The Journal of Sexual Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jsxm.2018.08.014 · Cited by 23
Stereotypes as Valid Categories of Knowledge and Human Perceptions of Group Differences
Lee, Y., McCauley, C. R., & Jussim, L. J. (2013) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12039 · Cited by 22
Self-citationVerweij, K. J. H., Mosing, M. A., Ullén, F., & Madison, G. (2016) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2016.8
The Cambridge Handbook of the International Psychology of Women
Cheung, F. M., & Halpern, D. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716 · Cited by 24
Bosse, A. (2022) · Inquiry · doi:10.1080/0020174x.2022.2074879 · Cited by 20
Early Disparities in Mathematics Gains among Poor and Non-Poor Children
Robinson, K. M. (2013) · The Elementary School Journal · doi:10.1086/670737 · Cited by 20
Accuracy of Social Perception: An Integration and Review of Meta‐Analyses
Nater, C., & Zell, E. (2015) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12194 · Cited by 21
Intellectually Humble, but Prejudiced People. A Paradox of Intellectual Virtue
Colombo, M., Strangmann, K., Houkes, L., Kostadinova, Z., & Brandt, M. J. (2021) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-020-00496-4 · Cited by 19
Reputations at Work: Origins and Outcomes of Shared Person Perceptions
Connelly, B. S., & McAbee, S. T. (2023) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-022320 · Cited by 19
Riemer, A. R., Haikalis, M., Franz, M. R., Dodd, M. D., DiLillo, D., & Gervais, S. J. (2017) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-017-0876-2 · Cited by 18
Anvari, F., Kievit, R., Lakens, D., Pennington, C. R., Przybylski, A. K., Tiokhin, L., Wiernik, B. M., & Orben, A. C. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/g3vtr · Cited by 18
Getting to know you: Accuracy and error in judgments of character
Westra, E. (2019) · Mind & Language · doi:10.1111/mila.12258 · Cited by 19
Realism and constructivism in social perception
Kihlstrom, J. F. (2017) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x15002344 · Cited by 16
Investigating the effect of AI service quality on consumer well-being in retail context
Shen, P., Wan, D., & Zhu, A. (2024) · Service Business · doi:10.1007/s11628-024-00575-x · Cited by 16
Is there a role for mindfulness and self-compassion in reducing stress in the teaching profession?
Tandler, N., Kirkcaldy, B. D., Petersen, L., & Athanasou, J. A. (2019) · Minerva Psichiatrica · doi:10.23736/s0391-1772.19.01998-8 · Cited by 15
The Dynamic Relationship Between Accuracy and Bias in Social Perception Research
Stern, C., West, T. V., & Schoenthaler, A. (2013) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12024 · Cited by 16
Perceptive Biases in Construction Mediation: Evidence and Application of Artificial Intelligence
Cao, N., Cheung, S. O., & Li, K. (2023) · Buildings · doi:10.3390/buildings13102460 · Cited by 19
Krueger, J. I., Grüning, D. J., Heck, P. R., & Freestone, D. M. (2024) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2024.2366766 · Cited by 16
Chen, S., Phillips, B. M., & Izci, B. (2018) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2018.1524378 · Cited by 14
Lee, Y., Guidotti, F., Capranica, L., Pesce, C., Benzing, V., Hauck, J. L., & Ciaccioni, S. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1567978 · Cited by 18
The complementarity of mindshaping and mindreading
Peters, U. (2018) · Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11097-018-9584-9 · Cited by 13
An argument for egalitarian confirmation bias and against political diversity in academia
Peters, U. (2020) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-020-02846-2 · Cited by 12
Exploring the meaning and origin of stereotypes amongst South African employees
Brink, L., & Nel, J. A. (2015) · SA Journal of Industrial Psychology · doi:10.4102/sajip.v41i1.1234 · Cited by 12
Lee, Y., Lee, J., & Clark, R. M. (2013) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2013.00001 · Cited by 12
Wong, W. I., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.009 · Cited by 12
Fekjær, S. B., Øverbye, E., & Terum, L. I. (2023) · Acta Sociologica · doi:10.1177/00016993231156486 · Cited by 11
Foss, N. J., Mazzelli, A., & Weber, L. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009566759 · Cited by 11
The Social Cover View: a Non-epistemic Approach to Mindreading
Almagro, M., & Castro, V. F. (2019) · Philosophia · doi:10.1007/s11406-019-00096-2 · Cited by 11
IAT Scores, Racial Gaps, and Scientific Gaps
Jussim, L. J., Careem, A., Goldberg, Z., Honeycutt, N., & Stevens, S. T. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108885492.021 · Cited by 11
Self-citationThe Not So Subtle and Status Quo Maintaining Nature of Everyday Sexism
Vescio, T. K., & Kosakowska‐Berezecka, N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.019 · Cited by 10
When a stereotype dumbfounds: Probing the nature of the surgeon = male belief
Morehouse, K. N., Kurdi, B., Hakim, E., & Banaji, M. R. (2022) · Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cresp.2022.100044 · Cited by 13
Political Conviction and Epistemic Injustice
Case, S. (2020) · Philosophia · doi:10.1007/s11406-020-00263-w · Cited by 9
Stereotypes and self-fulfilling prophecies in the Bayesian brain
Villiger, D. (2023) · Inquiry · doi:10.1080/0020174x.2023.2166983 · Cited by 11
Statistically inaccurate and morally unfair judgements via base rate intrusion
Cao, J., Max Kleiman-weiner, A., & Banaji, M. R. (2017) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-017-0218-y · Cited by 9
Downstream Effects of Dispositional Inferences on Confirmation Biases
Costabile, K. A., & Madon, S. (2018) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167218789624 · Cited by 12
Imputed Meaning: An Exploration of How Teachers Interpret Grades
Riley, T., & Ungerleider, C. (2019) · Action in Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/01626620.2019.1574246 · Cited by 9
The White Ceiling Heuristic and the Underestimation of Asian-American Income
Martin, C. C., & Nezlek, J. B. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0108732 · Cited by 9
Tostain, M. (2016) · Bulletin de psychologie · doi:10.3917/bupsy.543.0163 · Cited by 14
The Impact of Gender and Culture in Consumer Behavior
Ng, S., Bharti, M., & Faust, N. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.021 · Cited by 9
Riva, S., Chinyio, E., & Hampton, P. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02472 · Cited by 8
Should Cognitive Differences Research Be Forbidden?
Meisenberg, G. (2019) · Psych · doi:10.3390/psych1010021 · Cited by 8
Psychometric Properties of Social Perception of Mathematics: Rasch Model Analysis
AlAli, R. M., & Shehab, R. (2020) · International Education Studies · doi:10.5539/ies.v13n12p102 · Cited by 8
Cultural Influences on Body Image and Body Esteem
Sotiriou, E. G., & Awad, G. H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.018 · Cited by 8
The Radicalization of the American Academy
Jussim, L. J., Honeycutt, N., Paresky, P., Careem, A., Finkelstein, D., & Finkelstein, J. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-36268-2_19 · Cited by 7
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Jussim, L.
- Corresponding author
- Jussim, Lee
- ORCID
- Jussim, Lee
- Venue
- Oxford University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press
- Published
- 2012-04-06
- OpenAlex
- W2989983672
- Cited by
- 271
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 66 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 32 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 3
- FWCI
- 11.09
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Oxford University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › General Psychology › Academic and Historical Perspectives in Psychology
- Keywords
- social perception, social judgment, cognitive biases, self-fulfilling prophecy, stereotypes, replication, rationality, stock prices, political elections, sports prediction, social psychology theory
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review