Aging and switching the focus of attention in working memory: age differences in item availability but not in item accessibility
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVES: To investigate age differences in working memory processing, specifically the accuracy of retrieval of items stored outside the immediate focus of attention. METHODS: Younger and older adults were tested on a modified N-Back task with probes presented in an unpredictable order (implying also that some trials necessitated a switch in the focus of attention and others that did not). RESULTS: Older adults showed intact item accessibility, that is, after taking general slowing into account, older adults were as fast as younger adults in locating the item in working memory. We found age differences, however, in item availability: Older adults were less likely to correctly retrieve items stored outside the focus of attention. Smaller age differences in availability were also found for items stored inside the focus of attention. DISCUSSION: These results strongly suggest that item availability is a cognitive primitive that is not reducible to more basic constructs such as item accessibility or simple speed of processing.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity
Cowan, N. (2001) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x01003922 · Cited by 6,779 · see citing works
Individual differences in working memory and reading
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(80)90312-6 · Cited by 6,336 · see citing works
The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory
(2010) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/c2009-0-62209-1 · Cited by 6,035 · see citing works
Baddeley, A. (1992) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1736359 · Cited by 5,258 · see citing works
Reasoning ability is (little more than) working-memory capacity?!
Kyllonen, P. C., & Christal, R. E. (1990) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/s0160-2896(05)80012-1 · Cited by 1,810 · see citing works
Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.005 · Cited by 1,223 · see citing works
Access to information in working memory: Exploring the focus of attention.
Oberauer, K. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.28.3.411 · Cited by 1,167 · see citing works
Verhaeghen, P., & Salthouse, T. A. (1997) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.122.3.231 · Cited by 1,078 · see citing works
Self-citationAccess to information in working memory: Exploring the focus of attention.
Oberauer, K. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.28.3.411 · Cited by 760 · see citing works
Aging, executive control, and attention: a review of meta-analyses
Verhaeghen, P., & Cerella, J. (2002) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(02)00071-4 · Cited by 726 · see citing works
Self-citationFaust, M. E., Balota, D. A., Spieler, D. H., & Ferraro, F. R. (1999) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.777 · Cited by 622 · see citing works
Aging and verbal memory span: a meta-analysis
Bopp, K. L., & Verhaeghen, P. (2005) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/60.5.p223 · Cited by 607 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking memory and focal attention.
Brian Mcelree, A. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.27.3.817 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
Serial attention within working memory
Garavan, H. (1998) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03201138 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Verhaeghen, P., & Basak, C. (2004) · The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A · doi:10.1080/02724980443000241 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Self-citationVerhaeghen, P., Cerella, J., & Basak, C. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.30.6.1322 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Self-citationLight, L. L. (1996) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012102570-0/50015-x · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Is the focus of attention in working memory expanded through practice?
Oberauer, K. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.2.197 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Vaughan, L., Basak, C., Hartman, M., & Verhaeghen, P. (2008) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580802061645 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationVerhaeghen, P., & Hoyer, W. J. (2006) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/138255890969357 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationBasak, C., & Verhaeghen, P. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2011.481621 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationAdult Age Differences in Function Concept Learning
Griego, J. A., & Kliegel, M. (2007) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825580701442805 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Ease of access to list items in short-term memory depends on the order of the recognition probes.
Lange, E. B., Cerella, J., & Verhaeghen, P. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0022220 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationNo age differences in complex memory search: Older adults search as efficiently as younger adults.
Lange, E. B., & Verhaeghen, P. (2009) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0013751 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationDual representation of item positions in verbal short-term memory: Evidence for two access modes
Lange, E. B., Verhaeghen, P., & Cerella, J. (2010) · The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/09541440903155658 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationBelleville, G. (2008) · doi:10.1037/0278-
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Nikolin, S., Tan, Y. Y., Schwaab, A., Moffa, A., Loo, C. K., & Martin, D. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.01.084 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Gajewski, P. D., Hanisch, E., Falkenstein, M., Thönes, S., & Wascher, E. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02208 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Aging and n-Back Performance: A Meta-Analysis
Bopp, K. L., & Verhaeghen, P. (2018) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gby024 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationExecutive Functions and Neurocognitive Aging
Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A., Festini, S. B., & Jantz, T. K. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-411469-2.00013-3 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Age-Related Effects on ERP and Oscillatory EEG-Dynamics in a 2-Back Task
Gajewski, P. D., & Falkenstein, M. (2014) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027/0269-8803/a000123 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Stawski, R. S., MacDonald, S. W. S., Brewster, P. W. H., Muñoz, E., Cerino, E. S., & Halliday, D. (2017) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbx115 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Cambios fisiológicos asociados al envejecimiento
Salech, M. F., Jara, L. R., & Michea, A. (2012) · Revista Médica Clínica Las Condes · doi:10.1016/s0716-8640(12)70269-9 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Age-related differences in brain activation during working memory updating: An fMRI study
Qin, S., & Basak, C. (2020) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107335 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationGajewski, P. D., & Falkenstein, M. (2018) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2018/3454835 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Monitoring the capacity of working memory: Executive control and effects of listening effort
Amichetti, N. M., Stanley, R. S., White, A. G., & Wingfield, A. (2013) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-013-0302-0 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Cochrane, A., Simmering, V. R., & Green, C. S. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0221353 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Nashiro, K., Qin, S., O'Connell, M. A., & Basak, C. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.01.030 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationO’Connell, M. A., & Basak, C. (2018) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.04.013 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationAge-related differences in working memory updating components
Linares, R., Bajo, M. T., & Pelegrina, S. (2016) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2016.02.009 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Executive functions and neurocognitive aging
Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A., Festini, S. B., & Jantz, T. K. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816094-7.00019-2 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Stawski, R. S., Sliwinski, M. J., & Hofer, S. M. (2013) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2013.761556 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
To Switch or Not to Switch: Role of Cognitive Control in Working Memory Training in Older Adults
Basak, C., & O’Connell, M. A. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00230 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Self-citationIs refreshing in working memory impaired in older age? Evidence from the retro‐cue paradigm
Loaiza, V. M., & Souza, A. S. (2018) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13623 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Loaiza, V. M., Rhodes, M. G., & Juliano, J. M. (2013) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbt119 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Ray, N. R., O’Connell, M. A., Nashiro, K., Smith, E. T., Qin, S., & Basak, C. (2017) · Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience · doi:10.3233/rnn-160716 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationShilling-Scrivo, K. V., Mittelstadt, J. K., & Kanold, P. O. (2021) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0839-21.2021 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Sastoque, L. G., Bouazzaoui, B., Isingrini, M. L., & Angel, L. (2022) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-022-01018-8 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Verhaeghen, P., Geigerman, S., Yang, H., Montoya, A. C., & Rahnev, D. (2019) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2019.1586120 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationAttentional profile of adolescents with ADHD in virtual-reality dual execution tasks: A pilot study
Conde, J. A. C., & Climent, G. (2020) · Applied Neuropsychology Child · doi:10.1080/21622965.2020.1760103 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Berglund-Barraza, A., Tian, F., Basak, C., & Evans, J. L. (2019) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2019.00433 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationInfluence of cognitive processes on driver decision-making in dilemma zone
Kaul, R., & Jipp, M. (2023) · Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.trip.2023.100805 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Hepdarcan, I., & Can, S. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-025-07318-9 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Age-related similarities and differences in brain activity underlying reversal learning
Nashiro, K., Sakaki, M., Nga, L., & Mather, M. (2013) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2013.00037 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Aging Influences the Efficiency of Attentional Maintenance in Verbal Working Memory
Jarjat, G., Portrat, S., & Hot, P. (2018) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gby067 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Yao, Z., & Hsieh, S. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab382 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Visual Acuity does not Moderate Effect Sizes of Higher-Level Cognitive Tasks
Houston, J. R., Bennett, I. J., Allen, P. A., & Madden, D. J. (2016) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2016.1156964 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Qin, S., & Basak, C. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbab071 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationTAG-ME again: A serious game for measuring working memory
Hu, Y. Z., Parimoo, S., Chignell, M., Lowe, C. J., & Morton, J. B. (2023) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2023.2183361 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Auditory spatial attention capture, disengagement, and response selection in normal aging
Golob, E. J., & Mock, J. R. (2018) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-018-1611-y · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Revie, L., & Metzler‐Baddeley, C. (2024) · Aging Brain · doi:10.1016/j.nbas.2024.100106 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Semantic memory space becomes denser with age
Cutler, R. A., Mirjalili, S., Pham, P., Devulapalli, H., Zafar, S., & Duarte, A. (2025) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2025.109083 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Skolasinska, P., Basak, C., & Qin, S. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2023.04.007 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationKidd, G., & Humes, L. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00987 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Virtual cognitive training in healthy aging and mild cognitive impairment
Basak, C., & Qin, S. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811272-4.00009-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationThe part-list cuing effect in working memory: The influence of task presentation mode
Xing, M., Niu, Z., & Liu, T. (2021) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2021.103393 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Smith, E. T., Skolasinska, P., Qin, S., Sun, A., Fishwick, P. A., Park, D. C., & Basak, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.936528 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationTakeda, K., Meguro, K., Tanaka, N., & Nakatsuka, M. (2013) · BMJ Case Reports · doi:10.1136/bcr-2013-008577 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Zając-Lamparska, L. (2021) · Roczniki Psychologiczne · doi:10.18290/rpsych21242-3s · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Are latent working memory items retrieved from long-term memory?
Chao, C., Xu, C., Loaiza, V. M., & Rose, N. S. (2023) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218231217723 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Fide, E., Bora, E., & Yener, G. (2025) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.70001 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Uncovering the signatures of aging and senescence in the human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
Sloan, N. X., Mares, J., Daly, A. C., Grier, S., Haq, I., Jackson, C. A., Barretto, N., Casel, O., Kang, K., Khiste, S., et al. (2026) · Cell Genomics · doi:10.1016/j.xgen.2025.101127 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Spots within each Visium capture array were assigned to gray matter layers 1–6 and the white matter.”
Uncovering the Signatures of Cellular Senescence in the Human Dorsolateral Prefrontal CortexPreprint
Sloan, N., Mares, J. A., Daly, A. C., Coie, L. A., Grier, S., Barretto, N., Casel, O., Kang, K., Jackson, C., Pedersen, M., et al. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.02.19.639091 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
There Is Nothing Wrong With Cognitive Aging, and Here Is What to Do About It
Verhaeghen, P. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197528976.003.0014 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationMemory in Psychiatric Disorders: A Review
Gurrieri, R., Gambini, M., Russomanno, G., Mucci, F., Carbone, M. G., Sità, G., Pescini, E., Stagi, S., Casucci, A. C., Mastrogiacomo, D., et al. (2025) · Life · doi:10.3390/life15121926 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ma, K., Wang, M., & Hommel, B. (2026) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2025.103982 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Aging, babble noise, and the processing of speech perception
Manan, H. A., Yahya, N. A., & Yusoff, A. N. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817990-1.00037-8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Putting the “Return” Back in the Inhibition of Return Effect in Working Memory
Hautekiet, C., Langerock, N., & Vergauwe, E. (2024) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.401 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Smith, E. T., Nashiro, K., O’Connell, M., Chen, X., & Basak, C. (2024) · Aging Brain · doi:10.1016/j.nbas.2024.100131 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationSantiago, M. (2020) · Digital Commons at National Lewis University (National Lewis University) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Age-related changes in brain metabolites underlie slowing of speed-accuracy trade-offPreprint
Revie, L., & Metzler‐Baddeley, C. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.11.02.512356 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
TESTING EFFECT AND COMPLEX COMPREHENSION IN A LARGE INTRODUCTORY UNDERGRADUATE BIOLOGY COURSE
Pagliarulo, C. (2011) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona)
Blair, M. (2012) · Spectrum Research Repository (Concordia University)
Estudio de la memoria de trabajo en sujetos adultos portugueses
Morais, R. M. E. S. (2015) · doi:10.14201/gredos.129777
Intelligence and Cognitive Flexibility Selectively Modulate Working Memory FunctioningPreprint
Zhang, H., Meng, C., Xu, X., Hu, X., Zhang, Z., Klugah‐Brown, B., & Biswal, B. B. (2024) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2024.10.30.620994
Mise à jour en mémoire de travail et vieillissement normal de la mémoire épisodique
Boujut, A. (2016) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/a4f31e42zf86az4f4cz8f78z6216edb83e85
The role of inhibition in task switching: Evidence from an n-back task
Cao, B., Liu, G., Fu, M., Pan, C., & Li, F. (2026) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-026-03359-9
- Authors
- Basak, C., & Verhaeghen, P.
- Affiliations
- Rice University (US)
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Venue
- The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2011-05-12
- Volume
- 66B
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 519-526
- ISSN
- 1079-5014 (ISSN-L)
- 1758-5368
- PMC
- PMC3155026
- OpenAlex
- W2149069687
- Semantic Scholar
- 8a81af2265cd71cb55a282a215f82352e74d5123
- Cited by
- 63
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 5 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 3.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- The Journals of Gerontology Series B (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG016201, R01 AG16201)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- aging, working memory, attentional focus, age differences, n-back task, cognitive aging, processing speed
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Attention, Color Perception, Cues, Discrimination, Psychological, Female, Humans, Male, Memory, Short-Term, Middle Aged, Orientation, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Psychomotor Performance, Reaction Time, Serial Learning, Young Adult, Executive Function
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
