Improved Digit Symbol Substitution by Older Women as a Result of Extended Practice
Abstract
Older women (mean = 69 yr) and younger women (mean = 23 yr) received 100 administrations of the Digit Symbol Substitution subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, modified so that the digit-symbol keys differed on each of the five training days. The older women improved substantially both within and between training sessions, but equally large gains wee made by the younger women so that age differences were not reduced by training. As a consequence of practice, scores of the older women on the standard WAIS subtest increased from the 25th to the 90th percentile relative to norms for young adults, and these scores maintained during a follow-up test 10 days later. Although practice effects transferred to digit-symbol keys different from the training keys, improvements did not generalize to WAIS Digit Span performance or to a matching task containing some of the elements of the training task.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Age-related effects on DSST performance are attributable to age differences in motor speed and not in higher cognitive functions.
“The Beres and Baron22 findings suggest that age-related effects are attributable to age differences in motor speed and not in higher cognitive functions.”
From Digit Symbol Substitution Test: The Case for Sensitivity Over Specificity in Neuropsychological Testing (2018) · cites this paper as [22]
The executive function of strategizing or consciously exerting effort to learn the pairings is among the activities that contribute to performance on the DSST.
“These findings indicate that the executive function of strategizing or consciously exerting effort to learn the pairings is among the activities that contribute to performance on this test.”
From Digit Symbol Substitution Test: The Case for Sensitivity Over Specificity in Neuropsychological Testing (2018) · cites this paper as [22]
Beres and Baron showed that both elderly and young subjects improved not only within each day but also between days on the DSST.
“The authors showed that both elderly and young subjects improved not only within each day but also between days.”
From Digit Symbol Substitution Test: The Case for Sensitivity Over Specificity in Neuropsychological Testing (2018) · cites this paper as [22]
Improvement with exposure on the DSST occurs in part for reasons other than associative learning of the pairs.
“This observation suggests that improvement with exposure occurs in part for reasons other than associative learning of the pairs.”
From Digit Symbol Substitution Test: The Case for Sensitivity Over Specificity in Neuropsychological Testing (2018) · cites this paper as [22]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Still being checked.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Jaeger, J. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1097/jcp.0000000000000941 · Cited by 836 · see citing works
Haan, M. N. (1999) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.282.1.40 · Cited by 457 · see citing works
The information-loss model: a mathematical theory of age-related cognitive slowing
Myerson, J., Hale, S., Wagstaff, D., Poon, L. W., & Smith, G. A. (1990) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.97.4.475 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
The impact of speed of processing training on cognitive and everyday performance
Edwards, J. D., Wadley, V. G., Vance, D. E., Wood, K., Roenker, D. L., & Ball, K. (2005) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607860412331336788 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
What Do Adult Age Differences in the Digit Symbol Substitution Test Reflect?
Salthouse, T. A. (1992) · Journal of Gerontology · doi:10.1093/geronj/47.3.p121 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Acquiring skill at mental calculation in adulthood: A task decomposition.
Charness, N. H., & Campbell, J. I. D. (1988) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.117.2.115 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Long-term effects of fluid ability training in old-old age.
Willis, S. L., & Nesselroade, C. S. (1990) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.26.6.905 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Baudouin, A., Clarys, D., Vanneste, S., & Isingrini, M. L. (2009) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.08.007 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Black and White Differences in Cognitive Function Test Scores: What Explains the Difference?
Mehta, K. M., Simonsick, E. M., Rooks, R. N., Newman, A. B., Pope, S. K., Rubin, S. M., Yaffe, K. S., & for the Health, A. A. B. C. S. (2004) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2004.52575.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Influence of Experience on Age Differences in Cognitive Functioning
Salthouse, T. A. (1990) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/001872089003200505 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Human Factors and Design for Older Adults
Charness, N., & Bosman, E. A. (1990) · Handbook of the Psychology of Aging · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-101280-9.50032-2 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Mitochondrial DNA m.3243A > G heteroplasmy affects multiple aging phenotypes and risk of mortality
Tranah, G. J., Katzman, S. M., Lauterjung, K., Yaffe, K. S., Manini, T. M., Kritchevsky, S. B., Newman, A. B., Harris, T. B., & Cummings, S. R. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-30255-6 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Handwriting performance in younger and older adults: Age, familiarity, and practice effects.
Dixon, R. A., Kurzman, D., & Friesen, I. C. (1993) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.8.3.360 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Sleep and Executive Function in Older Women: The Moderating Effect of Physical Activity
Lambiase, M. J., Gabriel, K. P., Kuller, L. H., & Matthews, K. A. (2014) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glu038 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Intraindividual change in text recall of the elderly
Hertzog, C. K., Dixon, R. A., & Hultsch, D. F. (1992) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/0093-934x(92)90100-s · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Mitochondrial DNA Sequence Variation Associated with Dementia and Cognitive Function in the Elderly
Tranah, G. J., The Health, A. A. B. C. S., Nalls, M. A., Katzman, S. M., Yokoyama, J. S., Lam, E. T., Zhao, Y., Mooney, S. D., Thomas, F., Newman, A. B., et al. (2012) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2012-120466 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
What predicts changes in useful field of view test performance?
Lunsman, M., Edwards, J. D., Andel, R., Small, B. J., Ball, K., & Roenker, D. L. (2008) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/a0013466 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Task-Dependent Individual Differences in Prefrontal Connectivity
Biswal, B. B., Eldreth, D. A., Motes, M. A., & Bart Rypma, A. (2010) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhp284 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Crowe, S. F., Benedict, T., Enrico, J., Mancuso, N., Matthews, C., & Wallace, J. (1999) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050069908257455 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Mitochondrial DNA sequence associations with dementia and amyloid-β in elderly African Americans
Tranah, G. J., Yokoyama, J. S., Katzman, S. M., Nalls, M. A., Newman, A. B., Harris, T. B., Cesari, M., Manini, T. M., Schork, N. J., Cummings, S. R., et al. (2013) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2013.05.023 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
COMT genotype and cognitive function
Fiocco, A., Lindquist, K., Ferrell, R., Li, R.-L., Simonsick, E., Nalls, M., Harris, T., & Yaffe, K. (2010) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e3181d9edba · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Age differences in symbol-digit substitution task performance
Gilmore, G. C., Royer, F. L., & Gruhn, J. J. (1983) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(198301)39:1 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Compromised Motor Dexterity Confounds Processing Speed Task Outcomes in Stroke Patients
Low, E., Crewther, S. G., Ong, B., Perre, D., & Wijeratne, T. (2017) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2017.00484 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
REACTION TIMES OF YOUNGER AND OLDER MEN AND TEMPORAL CONTINGENCIES OF REINFORCEMENT
Baron, A., Menich, S. R., & Perone, M. (1983) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1901/jeab.1983.40-275 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationPPAR-γ Pro12Ala genotype and risk of cognitive decline in elders
Yaffe, K. S., Kanaya, A. M., Lindquist, K. J., Hsueh, W. C., Cummings, S. R., Beamer, B., Newman, A. B., Rosano, C., Li, R., & Harris, T. B. (2006) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.09.010 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Myerson, J., Hale, S., Hirschman, R. S., Hansen, C., & Christiansen, B. (1989) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1901/jeab.1989.52-353 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Wardzala, C. L., Murchison, C., Loftis, J. M., Schenning, K. J., Mattek, N., Woltjer, R. L., Kaye, J. A., Quinn, J. F., & Wilhelm, C. (2017) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-017-4791-6 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Impact of simulated visual impairment on the cognitive test performance of young adults
Wood, J. M., Chaparro, A., Anstey, K. J., Hsing, Y. E., Johnsson, A. K., Morse, A. L., & Wainwright, S. E. (2008) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712608x374723 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Falla, M., Hüfner, K., Falk, M., Weiss, E. M., Vögele, A., van Veelen, M. J., Weber, B., Brandner, J., Palma, M., Dejaco, A., et al. (2022) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/00187208221086407 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Reaction Times and Movement Times: Benefits of Practice to Younger and Older Adults
Light, K. E., Reilly, M. A., Behrman, A. L., & Spirduso, W. W. (1996) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.4.1.27 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Living Without Temporal Cues: A Case Study
Bonmatí‐Carrión, M., Revell, V. L., Cook, T. J., Welch, T. R. E., Rol, M. A., Skene, D. J., & Madrid, J. A. (2020) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2020.00011 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Davenport, M. K., Young, C. K., Kim, M. H., Gilberto, J. M., & Beier, M. E. (2022) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12535 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Jaeger, J., & Domingo, S. Z. (2016) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/s0924-977x(16)31265-2 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
What We Know About Acquisition of Adult Literacy: Is There Hope
Abadzi, H. (1994) · doi:10.1596/0-8213-2862-x · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Does age diminish the ability to learn fluent reading?
Abadzi, H. (1996) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/bf01463940 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Blumen, H., Ayers, E., Wang, C.-L., Ambrose, A., Jayakody, O., & Verghese, J. (2022) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.2022-0176 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Wisocki, P. A. (1991) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0638-0_1 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Perone, M., & Baron, A. (1983) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.19.6.915 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationFiocco, A. J., Kanaya, A. M., Lindquist, K. J., Harris, T. B., Satterfield, S., Simonsick, E. M., Kuller, L. H., Rosano, C., & Yaffe, K. S. (2010) · Prostaglandins Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids · doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2010.09.001 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Problem Solving and Aging: Evidence from Semantically Rich Domains
Charness, N. H. (1982) · Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue canadienne du vieillissement · doi:10.1017/s0714980800013477 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Perzl, J., Riedl, E. M., & Thomas, J. (2023) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911231213845 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Dai, J., Wang, M., Zhang, H., Wang, Z., Xue, M., Sun, Y., Sun, Y., Dong, W., Sun, Z., & Liu, K. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1512175 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Behavioral slowing and neuropsychological signs in a sample of active older men
Menich, S. R., & Baron, A. (1987) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/03610738708259296 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive-Behavioral Interventions for Age-Related Memory Impairment
Duke, L. W., Haley, W. E., & Bergquist, T. F. (1991) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-0638-0_11 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Vintimilla, R., Benton, A., Morakabian, R., Hall, J. R., Johnson, L. A., O’Bryant, S. E., & for the HABS-HD Study Team (2024) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000539035 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Cognitive Skill Acquisition: A Developmental Approach
Casey, B. J., Rogers, W. A., & Fisk, A. D. (1987) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/154193128703100802 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Siry, J. M. (1991) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.1991.68.1.267 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Brown, F. H. S. (1988) · ThinkTech (Texas Tech University)
Visual and Auditory Phonological Processing During Reading and Listening
Moroschan, G. (2013) · ERA: Education and Research Archive (University of Alberta) · doi:10.7939/r3xt5d
(1985) · Advances in psychology · doi:10.1016/s0166-4115(08)61646-5
Dyer, J., Barbey, F. M., Ghoshal, A., Hake, A. M., Hansen, B. J., Islam, M. N., Jaeger, J., Kozak, R., Marston, H. M., Moss, M. B., et al. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/55469
Heggenberger, A., Leisge, K., & Schaefer, S. (2026) · Experimental Aging Research · doi:10.1080/0361073x.2026.2703931 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Beres, C. A., & Baron, A.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Gerontology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1981-09-01
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 591-597
- ISSN
- 0022-1422 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2075800314
- Cited by
- 53
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2020: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 1 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 2.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Gerontology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- digit symbol substitution, older women, age differences, practice effects, transfer of learning, cognitive aging, intelligence testing, digit span, matching task
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Aged, Analysis of Variance, Female, Humans, Learning, Middle Aged, Practice, Psychological, Wechsler Scales
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
