The DOI matches its Crossref record; 62 of the 62 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Long-term Outcomes of Military Service in Aging and the Life Course: A Positive Re-envisioning
Open accessAbstract
Most research on military service focuses on its short-term negative consequences, especially the mental and physical injuries of those deployed in warzones. However, studies of long-term outcomes reveal surprisingly positive effects of military service—both those early in adulthood that grow over time and others that can emerge later in life. These multidomain effects have been found in veterans of World War II and the Korean War and are now being seen in veterans of the Vietnam War. Although some are directly attributable to public policies such as the GI Bill, which facilitate educational and economic gains, there are personal developmental gains as well, including autonomy, emotional maturity and resilience, mastery, and leadership skills, that lead to better health and well-being in later life. These long-term effects vary across persons, change over time within persons, and often reflect processes of cumulative advantage and disadvantage. We propose a life-span model of the effects of military service that provides a perspective for probing both long-term positive and negative outcomes for aging veterans. We further explicate the model by focusing on both sociocultural dynamics and individual processes. We identify public-use data that can be examined to evaluate this model, and offer a set of questions that can be used to assess military service. Finally, we outline an agenda for dedicated inquiry into such effects and consider policy implications for the health and well-being of aging veterans in later life.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“In the long run, military service has been found to have positive effects.6 7”
From Factors associated with self-reported health among New Zealand military veterans: A cross-sectional study (2022) · cites this paper as [6]
Citations
Cites
(1990) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e530902004-001 · Cited by 3,690
Moral injury and moral repair in war veterans: A preliminary model and intervention strategy
Litz, B. T., Stein, N., Delaney, E., Lebowitz, L., Nash, W. P., Silva, C., & Maguen, S. (2009) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.07.003 · Cited by 2,738
Ungar, M. (2011) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.2010.01067.x · Cited by 1,789
Stress, Coping, and Development: An Integrative Perspective
Aldwin, C. M. (1994) · Cited by 1,250
Self-citationLife Span Theory in Developmental Psychology
Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U. M. (2007) · Handbook of Child Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0111 · Cited by 1,240
Cameron, E. L., & Bernstein, D. A. (2022) · Springer texts in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-85650-2_10 · Cited by 1,213
Children Of The Great Depression: 25th Anniversary Edition
Elder, G. H. (1977) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,135
The Social Ecology of Resilience
Ungar, M. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-0586-3 · Cited by 1,084
Children of the Great Depression: Social Change in Life Experience.
Coles, R., & Elder, G. H. (1975) · Social Forces · doi:10.2307/2576115 · Cited by 845
Handbook of PTSD: Science and Practice
Bisson, J. I. (2008) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07121921 · Cited by 725
An exploration of the viability and usefulness of the construct of moral injury in war veterans.
Drescher, K. D., Foy, D. W., Kelly, C. M., Leshner, A., Schutz, K., & Litz, B. T. (2011) · Traumatology An International Journal · doi:10.1177/1534765610395615 · Cited by 494
Kubzansky, L. D., Koenen, K. C., Spiro, A., Vokonas, P., & Sparrow, D. (2007) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.1.109 · Cited by 425
Self-citationHandbook of PTSD : science and practice
Friedman, M. J., Keane, T. M., & Resick, P. A. (2007) · Cited by 375
Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1996) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2096353 · Cited by 352
Returning Home from Iraq and Afghanistan
Institute of Medicine (2010) · National Academies Press eBooks · doi:10.17226/12812 · Cited by 331
Military Service in the Life Course
MacLean, A., & Elder, G. H. (2007) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131710 · Cited by 273
LaBeaud, A. D., Bashir, F., & King, C. H. (2011) · Population Health Metrics · doi:10.1186/1478-7954-9-1 · Cited by 269
Segal, D. R., & Segal, M. W. (2004) · Cited by 254
(2014) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed-d-14-00263 · Cited by 224
Larson, G. E., Highfill‐McRoy, R. M., & Booth-Kewley, S. (2008) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwn084 · Cited by 211
Bedard, K., & Deschênes, O. (2006) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/000282806776157731 · Cited by 204
Human Development in Time and Place
Elder, G. H., Shanahan, M. J., & Jennings, J. A. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy402 · Cited by 195
Stress, coping, and development: An integrative perspective, 2nd ed.
Aldwin, C. M. (2007) · Cited by 191
Self-citationAn Evaluation of the Effect of Military Service on Mortality: Quantifying the Healthy Soldier Effect
McLaughlin, R., Nielsen, L., & Waller, M. (2008) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2008.09.002 · Cited by 153
Fontana, A., & Rosenheck, R. (1994) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.9.1.27 · Cited by 153
Children of the Great Depression: Social Change in Life Experience (25th Anniversary Edition)
Plank, S. B., & Elder, G. H. (1999) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2655000 · Cited by 152
The Military and the Transition to Adulthood
Kelty, R., Kleykamp, M. A., & Segal, D. R. (2010) · The Future of Children · doi:10.1353/foc.0.0045 · Cited by 148
Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in older men.
Spiro, A., Schnurr, P., & Aldwin, C. (1994) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.9.1.17 · Cited by 144
Self-citationPark, C. L., Aldwin, C. M., Fenster, J. R., & Snyder, L. B. (2008) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/a0014054 · Cited by 144
Self-citationFONTANA, A. F., & Rosenheck, R. A. (1994) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037//0882-7974.9.1.27 · Cited by 115
Linking combat and physical health: the legacy of World War II in men's lives
Elder, G. H., Shanahan, M. J., & Clipp, E. C. (1997) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.154.3.330 · Cited by 114
Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in older men.
Spiro, A., Schnurr, P. P., & Aldwin, C. M. (1994) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.9.1.17 · Cited by 106
Self-citationMagruder, K. M., & Yeager, D. E. (2009) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/00485713-20090728-04 · Cited by 95
Late-Life Emergence of Early-Life Trauma
Davison, E. H., Kaiser, A. P., Gugliucci, M. R., King, L. A., King, D. W., Salgado, D. M., Spiro, A., & Bachrach, P. (2005) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027505281560 · Cited by 94
Self-citationDavison, E. H., Kaiser, A. P., Spiro, A., Moye, J. A., King, L. A., & King, D. W. (2015) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnv097 · Cited by 94
Self-citationVythilingam, M., Nelson, E. E., Scaramozza, M., Waldeck, T. L., Hazlett, G. A., Southwick, S. M., Pine, D. S., Drevets, W. C., Charney, D. S., & Ernst, M. (2009) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2008.06.008 · Cited by 92
Settersten, R. A. (2005) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027505281577 · Cited by 90
Self-citationSuccessful Aging Among Older Veterans in the United States
Pietrzak, R. H., Tsai, J., Kirwin, P. D., & Southwick, S. M. (2013) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2012.11.018 · Cited by 79
Schnurr, P. P., Spiro, A., Aldwin, C. M., & Stukel, T. A. (1998) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/00005053-199809000-00002 · Cited by 74
Self-citationCombat Exposure, Perceived Benefits of Military Service, and Wisdom in Later Life
Jennings, P. A., Aldwin, C. M., Levenson, M. R., Spiro, A., & Mroczek, D. K. (2005) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027505281549 · Cited by 71
Self-citationPost-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Steenkamp, M. M., Nash, W. P., & Litz, B. T. (2013) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2013.01.013 · Cited by 70
A Life-Course Analysis of Military Service in Vietnam
WRIGHT, J. P., Carter, D. E., & Cullen, F. T. (2004) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427804270436 · Cited by 70
It takes two to tango: The (un)easy dance between life-course sociology and life-span psychology
Settersten, R. A. (2009) · Advances in Life Course Research · doi:10.1016/j.alcr.2009.05.002 · Cited by 65
Self-citationChapter 6 An Ecological Model of Resilience in Late Life
Aldwin, C. M., & Igarashi, H. (2012) · Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1891/0198-8794.32.115 · Cited by 63
Self-citationRisk pathways for PTSD: Making sense of the literature.
Vogt, D. S., King, D. W., & King, L. A. (2007) · Cited by 59
Bates, M. J., Bowles, S. V., Hammermeister, J., Stokes, C. K., Pinder, E. D., Moore, M., Fritts, M. J., Vythilingam, M., Yosick, T. M., Rhodes, J., et al. (2010) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed-d-10-00073 · Cited by 52
Changes over time in the "healthy soldier effect"
Waller, M., & McGuire, A. (2011) · Population Health Metrics · doi:10.1186/1478-7954-9-7 · Cited by 51
Chapter 14 Resilience Across the Life Span
Lerner, R. M., Weiner, M. B., Arbeit, M. R., Chase, P. A., Agans, J. P., Schmid, K. L., & Warren, A. E. A. (2012) · Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1891/0198-8794.32.275 · Cited by 46
Military Service and (Dis)Continuity in the Life Course
London, A. S., & Wilmoth, J. M. (2005) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027505281572 · Cited by 45
A life-span perspective on the effects of military service.
Spiro, A., Schnurr, P. P., & Aldwin, C. M. (1997) · Journal of geriatric psychiatry · Cited by 44
Self-citationSuccessful, optimal, and resilient aging: A psychosocial perspective.
Aldwin, C. M., & Igarashi, H. (2015) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/14458-014 · Cited by 41
Self-citationCourage in the Military: Physical and Moral
Olsthoorn, P. (2007) · Journal of Military Ethics · doi:10.1080/15027570701755471 · Cited by 36
Stethoscopes and Headscarves: Female Medical Students in Present-Day Afghanistan
Schexneider, K. I. (2010) · Military Medicine · doi:10.7205/milmed-d-09-00046 · Cited by 33
Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption
Hillenbrand, L. (2010) · Open PRAIRIE (South Dakota State University) · Cited by 30
Park, C. L., Kaiser, A. P., Spiro, A., King, D. W., & King, L. A. (2012) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2012.705554 · Cited by 23
Self-citationLife span developmental perspectives on stress-related growth.
Aldwin, C. M., Levenson, M. R., & Kelly, L. (2009) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11854-005 · Cited by 23
Self-citationHandbook of PTSD: Science and practice, 2nd ed.
Friedman, M. J., Keane, T. M., & Resick, P. A. (2014) · Cited by 20
Trauma exposure, PTSD, and physical health.
Schnurr, P. P., Wachen, J. S., Green, B. L., & Kaltman, S. I. (2014) · Cited by 13
Positive Adjustment Among American Repatriated Prisoners of the Vietnam War
King, D. W., King, L. A., Park, C. L., Lee, L. O., Kaiser, A. P., Spiro, A., Moore, J. L., Kaloupek, D. G., & Keane, T. M. (2014) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702614554448 · Cited by 10
Self-citationMen's Appraisals of Their Military Experiences in World War II: A 40-Year Perspective
Settersten, R. A., Day, J. K., Elder, G. H., & Waldinger, R. J. (2012) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2012.705558 · Cited by 9
Self-citationRisk and Protective Factors for Traumatic Stress Disorders
King, L. A., Kaiser, A. P., Wachen, J. S., Potter, C. M., Park, C. L., Spiro, A., & King, D. W. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399066.013.0022 · Cited by 7
Self-citationThe Socioeconomic Benefits of Active Military Service to Reservists
Lakhani, H. A. G. (1998) · Armed Forces & Society · doi:10.1177/0095327x9802400406 · Cited by 4
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Aldwin, 2009, Lifespan developmental perspectives on stress-related growth, 87
- Baltes, 2006, Lifespan theory in developmental psychology, 569
- Maguen, 2012, Moral injury in veterans of war
- 1993, Military service: Long-term effects on adult development
- Southwick, 2014, Resilience, 590
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Older Adults: A Conceptual Review
Pless Kaiser, A., Cook, J. M., Glick, D. M., & Moye, J. (2019) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2018.1539801 · Cited by 175
The Unfolding of LGBT Lives: Key Events Associated With Health and Well-being in Later Life
Fredriksen‐Goldsen, K. I., Bryan, A. E. B., Jen, S., Goldsen, J., Kim, H., & Muraco, A. (2016) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnw185 · Cited by 93
The workplace integration of veterans: Applying diversity and fit perspectives
González, J. A., & Simpson, J. (2020) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2020.100775 · Cited by 73
Prior Military Service, Identity Stigma, and Mental Health Among Transgender Older Adults
Hoy‐Ellis, C. P., Shiu, C. A., Sullivan, K. M., Kim, H., Sturges, A. M., & Fredriksen‐Goldsen, K. I. (2017) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnw173 · Cited by 52
Military-to-civilian transition theories and frameworks
Pedlar, D., Thompson, J. M., & Andrew Castro, C. (2019) · Military Veteran Reintegration · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815312-3.00003-6 · Cited by 49
Metadata
- Authors
- Spiro, A., Settersten, R. A., & Aldwin, C. M.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- Oregon State University (US)
- Venue
- The Gerontologist
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2015-12-09
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-13
- ISSN
- 0016-9013 (ISSN-L)
- 1758-5341
- PMC
- PMC4906316
- OpenAlex
- W2255424595
- Cited by
- 125
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 3.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- The Gerontologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HighWire Press Open Archive (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R24AG039343)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Education and Military Integration
- Social Sciences › Demography › Retirement, Disability, and Employment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Keywords
- military service, veterans, aging, life course, long-term outcomes, GI Bill, resilience, mastery, leadership skills, well-being, World War II veterans, Korean War veterans, Vietnam War veterans
- MeSH terms
- Aging, Follow-Up Studies, Health Status, Humans, Military Personnel, Time Factors, United States, Veterans
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
