The DOI matches its Crossref record; 126 of the 131 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 10 of the 122 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century: an ecosocial perspective
Open accessAbstract
‘Both thinking and facts are changeable, if only because changes in thinking manifest themselves in changed facts. Conversely, fundamentally new facts can be discovered only through new thinking.’ Ludwick Fleck (1935) Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact.1,pp.50–51 ‘Once we recognize the state of the art is a social product, we are freer to look critically at the agenda of our science, its conceptual framework, and accepted methodologies, and to make conscious research choices.’ Richard Levins and Richard Lewontin (1987) The Dialectical Biologist.2,p.286 In social epidemiology, to speak of theory is simultaneously to speak of society and biology. It is, I will argue, to speak of embodiment. At issue is how we literally incorporate, biologically, the world around us, a world in which we simultaneously are but one biological species among many—and one whose labour and ideas literally have transformed the face of this earth. To conceptualize and elucidate the myriad social and biological processes resulting in embodiment and its manifestation in populations' epidemiological profiles, we need theory. This is because theory helps us structure our ideas, so as to explain causal connections between specified phenomena within and across specified domains by using interrelated sets of ideas whose plausibility can be tested by human action and thought.1–3 Grappling with notions of causation, in turn, raises not only complex philosophical issues but also, in the case of social epidemiology, issues of accountability and agency: simply invoking abstract notions of ‘society’ and disembodied ‘genes’ will not suffice. Instead, the central question becomes: who and what is responsible for population patterns of health, disease, and well-being, as manifested in present, past and changing social inequalities in health? Not surprisingly, theorizing about social inequalities in health runs deep. One reason is that it is fairly obvious that population patterns of good and bad health mirror population distributions of deprivation and privilege. Comments to this effect can be found in the Hippocratic corpus4 and in early texts of ancient Chinese medicine.5 Shared observations of disparities in health, however, do not necessarily translate to common understandings of cause; it is for this reason theory is key. Consider only centuries of debate in the US over the poor health of black Americans. In the 1830s and 1840s, contrary schools of thought ask: is it because blacks are intrinsically inferior to whites?— the majority view, or because they are enslaved?—as argued by Dr James McCune Smith (1811–1865) and Dr James S Rock (1825–1866), two of the country's first credentialled African American physicians.6 In contemporary parlance, the questions become: do the causes lie in bad genes?, bad behaviours?, or accumulations of bad living and working conditions born of egregious social policies, past and present?7,8 The fundamental tension, then and now, is between theories that seek causes of social inequalities in health in innate versus imposed, or individual versus societal, characteristics. Yet, despite the key role of theory, explicit or implicit, in shaping what it is we see—or do not see, what we deem knowable—or irrelevant, and what we consider feasible—or insoluble, literature articulating the theoretical frameworks informing research and debates in social epidemiology—and epidemiology more broadly—is sparse.9–12 In this article, I accordingly note the emergence of self-designated social epidemiology in the mid-20th century, review key theories invoked by contemporary social epidemiologists, and highlight the need for advancing theories useful for the 21st century. Building on holistic models of health developed between World War I and World War II13 and on the ‘social medicine’ framework forged during the 1940s,14–16 it is in the mid-20th century that ‘social epidemiology’ gains its name-as-such. The term apparently first appears in the title of an article published by Alfred Yankauer in the American Sociological Review in 1950: ‘The relationship of fetal and infant mortality to residential segregation: an inquiry into social epidemiology’,17 a topic as timely now as it was then; Yankauer later becomes editor of the American Journal of Public Health. The term then reappears in the introduction to one of the first books pulling together the behavioural and medical sciences, edited by E Gartly Jaco, published in 1958, Patients, Physicians, and Illness: Sourcebook in Behavioral Science and Medicine,18 and is included in the title of Jaco's next book, The Social Epidemiology of Mental Disorders; A Psychiatric Survey of Texas, published in 1960.19 By 1969, enough familiarity with the field exists that Leo G Reeder presents a major address to the American Sociological Association called ‘Social epidemiology: an appraisal’.20 Defining ‘social epidemiology’ as the ‘study of the role of social factors in the aetiology of disease’
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Claims the paper makes
10 of 122 cited sources checked · 4 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Nor does an emphasis on 'fundamental social causes' 60 offer principles for thinking through, systematically, whether -and if so, which -specific public health and policy interventions are needed to curtail social inequalities in health, above and beyond securing adequate living standards and reducing economic inequality.”
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [60] Link BG, Phelan JC. Editorial: understanding sociodemographic differences in health—the role of fundamental social causes. Am J Public Health1996;86:471–73. source
The citation identifies Link and Phelan’s emphasis on fundamental social causes, which the paper explicitly develops in its main text (indexed under Abstract; page not supplied). The statement about whether that emphasis helps select specific interventions is the citing authors’ own critique, not a finding attributed to Link and Phelan. (LLM, conf=0.90)
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The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Instead, unlike prior images-whether of a triangle connecting 'host', 'agent' and 'environment', 28 or a 'chain of causes' 90 arrayed along a scale of biological organization, from 'society' to 'molecular and submolecular particles', 9,p.70 or a spiderless two-dimensional 'web of causation', 91,pp.18-22 or a 'causal pie' sans cook, 92,p.588 -the new mental pictures are both multidimensional and”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] Krieger N. Epidemiology and the web of causation: has anyone seen the spider? Soc Sci Med1994;39:887–903. source
- Supportedcites [45] McMichael AJ. Prisoners of the proximate: loosening the constraints on epidemiology in an age of change. Am J Epidemiol1999;149:887–97. source
The Abstract calls for a social-ecologic systems perspective and describes developing dynamic, interactive life-course models. In “Preoccupation with proximate risk factors” (page unavailable), the paper contrasts a linear causal chain with a systems-based causal web involving multiple paths, interactions, and feedbacks. This supports the paraphrase’s contrast between older and newer ways of explaining disease patterns. (LLM, conf=0.87)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [93] Susser M, Susser E. Choosing a future for epidemiology: II. from black boxes to Chinese boxes and eco-epidemiology. Am J Public Health1996;86:674–77. source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“(1) economic and social deprivation : for example, residential and occupational segregation lead to greater economic deprivation among African Americans and increased likelihood of living in neighbourhoods without good supermarkets”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7] Krieger N. Discrimination and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I (eds). Social Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.36–75.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites [8] Williams DR. Race, socioeconomic status, and health. The added effects of racism and discrimination. Annals NY Acad Sci1999;896: 173–88. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The RACISM AND SES section (page unavailable) links discriminatory residential segregation to economic disadvantage for African Americans, and RACISM AND HEALTH: DIRECT EFFECTS describes an indirect pathway from racism to poorer health through socioeconomic position. Our copy does not identify hypertension as an outcome of that pathway or substantiate the citing sentence’s specific example about neighbourhoods without good supermarkets (searched: hypertension, blood pressure, supermarket). (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [110] Krieger N, Rowley DL, Herman AA, Avery B, Phillips MT. Racism, sexism, and social class: implications for studies of health, disease, and well-being. Am J Prev Med1993;9(Suppl.):82–122. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [111] Anderson NB, Myers HF, Pickering T, Jackson JS. Hypertension in blacks: psychosocial and biological perspectives. J Hypertens1989;7:161–72. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [112] Lopes AA, Port FK. The low birth weight hypothesis as a plausible explanation for the black/white differences in hypertension, non-insulin-dependent diabetes, and end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis1995;25:350–56. source
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The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“(2) toxic substances and hazardous conditions : residential segregation increases risk of exposure to lead paint in older houses and to soil contaminated by lead from car exhaust”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7] Krieger N. Discrimination and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I (eds). Social Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.36–75.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites [8] Williams DR. Race, socioeconomic status, and health. The added effects of racism and discrimination. Annals NY Acad Sci1999;896: 173–88. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Racism and Health: Direct Effects” (page unavailable), the paper says residential segregation can create poor-quality housing and disproportionate exposure to environmental toxins. It does not identify lead paint or lead-contaminated soil as the exposures, or link this pathway specifically to hypertension among African Americans. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [110] Krieger N, Rowley DL, Herman AA, Avery B, Phillips MT. Racism, sexism, and social class: implications for studies of health, disease, and well-being. Am J Prev Med1993;9(Suppl.):82–122. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [113] Sorel JE, Heiss G, Tyroler HA, Davis WB, Wing SB, Ragland DR. Black-white differences in blood pressure among participants in NHANES II: the contribution of blood lead. Epidemiol1991;2:348–52. source
- Partly supportedcites [114] Lanphear BP, Weitzman M, Eberly S. Racial differences in urban children's environmental exposures to lead. Am J Public Health1996;86:1460–63. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (p. 1461) links the racial disparity in children's blood lead levels to poorer housing conditions, lead-contaminated house dust, and deteriorated painted surfaces. But the Results report similar soil lead levels for Black and White children, and the paper does not establish that residential segregation caused the exposures or that car exhaust contaminated the soil. It does not examine hypertension. (LLM, conf=0.87)
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The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“(6) resistance to racial oppression: individual and community resources and social movements to counter racism and to enhance dignity, along with enactment and implementation of legislation to outlaw racial discrimination, reduces risk of hypertension among African Americans.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7] Krieger N. Discrimination and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I (eds). Social Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.36–75.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Could not verifycites [8] Williams DR. Race, socioeconomic status, and health. The added effects of racism and discrimination. Annals NY Acad Sci1999;896: 173–88. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The ‘Racism and Health: Direct Effects’ section links experiences of discrimination to adverse health and cardiovascular reactivity, but does not say that resistance to racial oppression reduces hypertension risk among African Americans. Searches for resistance, hypertension, and anti-discrimination legislation found no passage establishing that specific claim; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [110] Krieger N, Rowley DL, Herman AA, Avery B, Phillips MT. Racism, sexism, and social class: implications for studies of health, disease, and well-being. Am J Prev Med1993;9(Suppl.):82–122. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [119] Cooper R, Steinhauer M, Miller W, David R, Schatzkin A. Racism, society, and disease: an exploration of the social and biological mechanisms of differential mortality. Int J Health Services1981;11:389–414. source
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The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“(3) socially inflicted trauma : perceiving, recalling or anticipating interpersonal racial discrimination provokes fear and anger, triggering the 'flight-or-fight' response”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7] Krieger N. Discrimination and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I (eds). Social Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.36–75.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Partly supportedcites [8] Williams DR. Race, socioeconomic status, and health. The added effects of racism and discrimination. Annals NY Acad Sci1999;896: 173–88. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Racism and Health: Direct Effects” (page unavailable), the paper describes discrimination as a potential source of stress and reports cardiovascular and psychological reactivity to laboratory stress among Black participants. It does not identify socially inflicted trauma or the specific sequence of anticipating discrimination, fear or anger, and a fight-or-flight response; nor does it link that pathway to increased hypertension risk. (LLM, conf=0.85)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] Sterling P, Eyer J. Allostasis: a new paradigm to explain arousal pathology. In: Fisher J, Reason J (eds). Handbook of Life Stress, Cognition, and Health. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1988, pp.629–49. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [35] McEwen BS. Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators: allostatis and allostatic load. N Engl J Med1998;338:171–79. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [110] Krieger N, Rowley DL, Herman AA, Avery B, Phillips MT. Racism, sexism, and social class: implications for studies of health, disease, and well-being. Am J Prev Med1993;9(Suppl.):82–122. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [111] Anderson NB, Myers HF, Pickering T, Jackson JS. Hypertension in blacks: psychosocial and biological perspectives. J Hypertens1989;7:161–72. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [115] Clark R, Anderson NB, Clark VR, Williams DR. Racism as a stressor for African Americans. A biopsychosocial model. Am Psychol1999;54:805–16. source
- Partly supportedcites [116] Krieger N, Sidney S. Racial discrimination and blood pressure: the CARDIA study of young black and white adults. Am J Public Health1996;86:1370–78. sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The indexed Abstract (page unavailable) reports associations between racial discrimination, responses to unfair treatment, and systolic blood pressure among Black CARDIA participants. It does not describe socially inflicted trauma or establish that perceiving, recalling, or anticipating discrimination triggers fear, anger, and a fight-or-flight response; the indexed full-text area contains only a PDF link and references. (LLM, conf=0.82)
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The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Emphasizing accountability, it extends beyond psychosocial explanations focused on 'anger' and 'hostility' 120,121 to the social phenomena-in this case, interpersonal and institutional discrimination-eliciting these responses, as mediated by material pathways.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [120] Gentry WD. Relationship of anger-coping styles and blood pressure among Black Americans. In: Chesney MA, Rosenman RH (eds). Anger and Hostility in Cardiovascular and Behavioral Disorder. Washington, DC: Hemisphere, 1985, pp.139–47.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites [121] Brosschot JF, Thayer JF. Anger inhibition, cardiovascular recovery, and vagal function: a model of the link between hostility and cardiovascular disease. Annals Behav Med1998;20:326–32. source
The citations follow the phrase about psychosocial explanations focused on anger and hostility, rather than the citing authors’ description of what the ecosocial approach adds. The Introduction explicitly discusses anger and hostility as cardiovascular risk factors and examines proposed psychological and cardiovascular mechanisms for that link. The supplied passage has no page number. (LLM, conf=0.92)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Not matched
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“Highlighting dynamic and cumulative interplay between exposure, susceptibility and resistance, it advances beyond social production of disease analyses typically focused on racial/ethnic disparities in socioeconomic position among adults 51 to highlight discrimination within class strata plus ongoing biological impact of economic deprivation in early life.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7] Krieger N. Discrimination and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I (eds). Social Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.36–75.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites [8] Williams DR. Race, socioeconomic status, and health. The added effects of racism and discrimination. Annals NY Acad Sci1999;896: 173–88. source
Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Not matchedcites [36] Kuh D, Ben-Shlomo Y (eds). A Life Course Approach to Chronic Disease Epidemiology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [110] Krieger N, Rowley DL, Herman AA, Avery B, Phillips MT. Racism, sexism, and social class: implications for studies of health, disease, and well-being. Am J Prev Med1993;9(Suppl.):82–122. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Not matched
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Yet, despite the key role of theory, explicit or implicit, in shaping what it is we see-or do not see, what we deem knowable-or irrelevant, and what we consider feasible-or insoluble, literature articulating the theoretical frameworks informing research and debates in social epidemiology-and epidemiology more broadly-is sparse. 9-12”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] Stallones RA. To advance epidemiology. Annu Rev Public Health1980; 1:69–82. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] Krieger N. Epidemiology and the web of causation: has anyone seen the spider? Soc Sci Med1994;39:887–903. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [11] Krieger N, Zierler S. What explains the public's health?—a call for epidemiologic theory. Epidemiology1995;7:107–09. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [12] Schwartz S, Susser E, Susser M. A future for epidemiology? Annu Rev Public Health1999;20:15–33. source
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In the paper
“Arising in part as critique of proliferating blame-the-victim 'lifestyle' theories, which emphasize individuals' responsibility to 'choose' so-called 'healthy lifestyles' and to cope better with 'stress', 46,54-56 these new analyses explicitly address economic and political determinants of health and disease, including structural barriers to people living healthy lives. 46-48,53-58”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [46] Doyal L. The Political Economy of Health. London: Pluto Press, 1979.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [54] Crawford R. You are dangerous to your health—the ideology and politics of victim blaming. Int J Health Services1977;7:663–80. source
- Not matchedcites [55] Navarro V. Crisis, Health, and Medicine: A Social Critique. New York: Tavistock, 1986.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [56] Tesh SN. Hidden Arguments: Political Ideology and Disease Prevention Policy. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1988.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] Conrad P, Kern R (eds). The Sociology of Health and Illness: Critical Perspectives. New York: St Martin's Press, 1981.
- Not matchedcites [48] Breilh J. Epidemiologia Economia Medicina y Politica. Mexico City, Mexico: Distribuciones Fontamara, 1988 (4th edition; 1st edition published in 1979 by Universidad Central del Ecuador).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [53] Eyer J, Sterling P. Stress-related mortality and social organization. Review of Radical Political Economics1977;9:1–44. source
- Not matchedcites [57] Sanders D. The Struggle for Health: Medicine and the Politics of Underdevelopment. Houndsmill, Basingstoke, Hampshire, and London: Macmillan, 1985.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [58] Turshen M. The Politics of Public Health. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1989.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 33
- It may state two separate claims as one. 18
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The three main theories explicitly invoked by practising social epidemiologists are: (1) psychosocial, (2) social production of disease and/or political economy of health, and (3) ecosocial theory and related multi-level frameworks.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Despite these gains, it is nevertheless sobering to realize that among the slightly over 432 000 articles indexed in Medline by the keyword 'epidemiology' between 1966 and 2000, only 4% also employ the keyword 'social', and-as Reeder surely would be sorry to learn-fewer than 0.1% are additionally indexed by the term 'theory'.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between 1966 and 1974, the keywords 'psychosocial' and 'epidemiology' together index only 40 articles in Medline; between 1995 and 1999 alone, the number jumps to nearly 1200.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Nascent, these emerging ecologically inclined multi-level social epidemiological frameworks remain rather sketchy, the bare beginnings of a mental map.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Concomitantly, explicit applications to aetiologic inquiry and to interventions are only just underway.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This is because theory helps us structure our ideas, so as to explain causal connections between specified phenomena within and across specified domains by using interrelated sets of ideas whose plausibility can be tested by human action and thought. 1-3”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [1] Fleck L. Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [2] Levins R, Lewontin R. The Dialectical Biologist. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [3] Ziman J. An Introduction to Science Studies: The Philosophical and Social Aspects of Science and Technology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other analyses address social inequalities involving race/ethnicity, gender and sexuality, as they play out within and across socioeconomic position, within and across diverse societies.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Hearkening back to social analyses of health of the 1830s and 1840s, as well as 1930s and 1940s, this school of thought-emerging in the politically turbulent 1960s and 1970s-focuses on what it terms the 'social production of disease' and/or 'political economy of health'. 46-48”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [46] Doyal L. The Political Economy of Health. London: Pluto Press, 1979.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] Conrad P, Kern R (eds). The Sociology of Health and Illness: Critical Perspectives. New York: St Martin's Press, 1981.
- Not matchedcites [48] Breilh J. Epidemiologia Economia Medicina y Politica. Mexico City, Mexico: Distribuciones Fontamara, 1988 (4th edition; 1st edition published in 1979 by Universidad Central del Ecuador).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Where they differ is in their respective emphasis on different aspects of social and biological conditions in shaping population health, how they integrate social and biological explanations, and thus their recommendations for action.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Stated another way, both improved living standards and noneconomic interventions (albeit with economic costs and consequences) matter.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The fundamental tension, then and now, is between theories that seek causes of social inequalities in health in innate versus imposed, or individual versus societal, characteristics.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Gaining complexity without an explicit accounting of social agency, the model becomes increasingly diffuse and, by 1960, the spiderless 'web of causation' is born. 10”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] Krieger N. Epidemiology and the web of causation: has anyone seen the spider? Soc Sci Med1994;39:887–903. source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The importance of the 'host-agent-environment' model for psychosocial epidemiology is evidenced by the title of one of the field's still-defining papers: John Cassel's (1921-1976) final opus, 'The contribution of the social environment to host resistance'. 30”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [30] Cassel J. The contribution of the social environment to host resistance. Am J Epidemiol1976;104:107–23. source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Grappling with notions of causation, in turn, raises not only complex philosophical issues but also, in the case of social epidemiology, issues of accountability and agency: simply invoking abstract notions of 'society' and disembodied 'genes' will not suffice.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Yet, despite its invaluable contributions to identifying social determinants of population health, a social production of disease/political economy of health perspective affords few principles for investigating what these determinants are determining. 10 Biology is opaque.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] Krieger N. Epidemiology and the web of causation: has anyone seen the spider? Soc Sci Med1994;39:887–903. source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“By 1969, enough familiarity with the field exists that Leo G Reeder presents a major address to the American Sociological Association called 'Social epidemiology: an appraisal'. 20”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [20] Reeder LG. Social epidemiology: an appraisal. (Revised version of a paper read at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association, San Francisco, September, 1969). In: Jaco EG (ed.). Patients, Physicians, and Illness. 2nd Edn. New York: The Free Press, 1972, pp.97–101.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“At issue is how we literally incorporate, biologically, the world around us, a world in which we simultaneously are but one biological species among many-and one whose labour and ideas literally have transformed the face of this earth.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, then, a psychosocial framework directs attention to endogenous biological responses to human interactions. Its focus is on responses to 'stress' and on stressed people in need of psychosocial resources.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Yet, as Simon Szreter and other public health historians have convincingly demonstrated, McKeown is only half right: although medical care per se can claim little credit for declines in incidence or mortality before World War II, economic growth alone did not improve health. Rather, specific public health policies, e.g. those aimed at cleaning the water and eliminating bovine tuberculosis, were”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites 87,88,89,pp.79-96
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In social epidemiology, to speak of theory is simultaneously to speak of society and biology. It is, I will argue, to speak of embodiment.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Despite conceptual expansion, several restrictive assumptions still pervade the new framework's very language. 10 'Agency', for example, remains located in the 'agent' -typically an exogenous entity that acts upon a designated 'host'; terminology alone renders it inhospitable to conceive of the 'host' having 'agency'! 'Environment', moreover, serves as a catch-all category, with no distinctions”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] Krieger N. Epidemiology and the web of causation: has anyone seen the spider? Soc Sci Med1994;39:887–903. source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Their goal is not a totalizing theory to explain everything (and therefore nothing), but rather to generate a set of integral (and testable) principles useful for guiding specific inquiry and action, much as evolutionary theory (broadly writ, with contending interpretations) guides biological disciplines ranging from paleontology to molecular biology. 2,94-96”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [2] Levins R, Lewontin R. The Dialectical Biologist. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [94] Mayr E, Provine B (eds). The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology; with a new preface by Ernst Mayr. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. (1st Edn: 1980).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [95] Lewontin RC. The Triple Helix: Gene, Organism, and Environment. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [96] Sober E. Philosophy of Biology. 2nd Edn. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2000.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“and can likewise begin to see how social relations influence our most basic understandings of biology 1,2,7,101 and our social constructions of disease 1,102”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [1] Fleck L. Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1935.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [2] Levins R, Lewontin R. The Dialectical Biologist. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [7] Krieger N. Discrimination and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I (eds). Social Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.36–75.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [101] Krieger N. Refiguring ‘race’: epidemiology, racialized biology, and biological expressions of race relations. Int J Health Services2000;30:211–16. source
- Not matchedcites [102] Rosenberg CE, Golden J. Framing Disease: Studies in Cultural History. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“An ecosocial approach, however, would raise questions beyond social determinants of age at first pregnancy to inquire how pregnancy itself is conceptualized in relation to risk of breast cancer.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [84] Krieger N. Exposure, susceptibility, and breast cancer risk: a hypothesis regarding exogenous carcinogens, breast tissue development, and social gradients, including black/white differences, in breast cancer incidence. Breast Cancer Res Treat1989;13:205–23. source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Simplistic divisions of the social and biological will not suffice.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a corollary is that no aspect of our biology can be understood absent knowledge of history and individual and societal ways of living.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Consider, too, how an ecosocial perspective can contribute to unravelling the unexplained excess risk of hypertension among African Americans.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7] Krieger N. Discrimination and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I (eds). Social Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.36–75.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Focused on the guiding question of 'who and what drives current and changing patterns of social inequalities in health' , the ecosocial approach (but not necessarily the other multi-level frameworks) fully embraces a social production of disease perspective while aiming to bring in a comparably rich biological and ecological analysis.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Constructs of 'embodiment', 'pathways of embodiment', and the 'dynamic and cumulative interplay between exposure, susceptibility and resistance' would require analysing pregnancy in relation to developmental biology of the breast”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [84] Krieger N. Exposure, susceptibility, and breast cancer risk: a hypothesis regarding exogenous carcinogens, breast tissue development, and social gradients, including black/white differences, in breast cancer incidence. Breast Cancer Res Treat1989;13:205–23. source
- Not matchedcites [104] Russo J, Russo IH. Toward a unified concept of mammary carcinogenesis. Progress Clin Biol Res1997;396:1–16.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the other is to consider the social meaning of parity even when the biology of pregnancy is relevant.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Core to an ecological approach are concerns with: (1) scale : referring to quantifiable dimensions of observed spatiotemporal phenomenon, whether measured in nanoseconds or millennia, microns or kilometres; (2) level of organization : theorized and inferred, in relation to specified nested hierarchies, from individual to population to ecosystem; (3) dynamic states : reflecting combined interplay”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [97] Roughgarden J. Primer of Ecological Theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1998.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [98] Peterson DL, Parker VT (eds). Ecological Scale: Theory and Application. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather, they distinguish ecological theory from the diverse social theories upon which they and the other social epidemiological frameworks rely.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A concern with 'accountability and agency', as well as scale and level, would additionally challenge genderbiased views positing reproductive hormones as primary determinants of women's health.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [68] Doyal L. What Makes Women Sick? Gender and The Political Economy of Health. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995. source
- Not matchedcites [69] Fee E, Krieger N. Women's Health, Politics, and Power: Essays on Sex/ Gender, Medicine, and Public Policy. Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishers, 1994.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [70] Ruzek SB, Olesen VL, Clarke AE (eds). Women's Health: Complexities and Differences. Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 1997.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [105] Oudshoorn N. Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones. New York: Routledge, 1994. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contemporary social epidemiology, the three main theoretical frameworks for explaining disease distribution are: (1) psychosocial, (2) social production of disease/political economy of health, and (3) ecosocial and other emerging multi-level frameworks.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“ecosocial and other emerging multi-level frameworks seek to integrate social and biological reasoning and a dynamic, historical and ecological perspective to develop new insights into determinants of population distributions of disease and social inequalities in health.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A psychosocial framework directs attention to endogenous biological responses to human interactions”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“to date, fewer than 25 epidemiological studies have explicitly investigated somatic consequences of racial discrimination-a mere 0.06% of the nearly 40 000 articles indexed by the keyword 'race' in Medline since 1966.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7] Krieger N. Discrimination and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I (eds). Social Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.36–75.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If social epidemiologists are to gain clarity on causes of and barriers to reducing social inequalities in health, adequate theory is a necessity, not a luxury.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“(5) inadequate health care : poorer detection and clinical management of hypertension among African Americans increases risk of untreated and uncontrolled hypertension”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [112] Lopes AA, Port FK. The low birth weight hypothesis as a plausible explanation for the black/white differences in hypertension, non-insulin-dependent diabetes, and end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis1995;25:350–56. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [118] Svetkey LP, George LK, Tyroler HA, Timmons PZ, Burchett BM, Blazer DG. Effects of gender and ethnic group on blood pressure control in the elderly. Am J Hypertens1996;9:529–35. source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe quote only partly states this claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the ecosocial framework begins to envision a more systematic integrated approach capable of generating new hypotheses, rather than simply reinterpreting factors identified by one approach (e.g. biological) in terms of another (e.g. social).”
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In conclusion, theory matters: both to define social epidemiology and to distinguish among trends within this field.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a social production of disease/political economy of health framework explicitly addresses economic and political determinants of health and disease but leaves biology opaque”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Shared observations of disparities in health do not necessarily translate to common understandings of cause; it is for this reason theory is key.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To gain clarity on causes of and barriers to reducing social inequalities in health, social epidemiologists will need to generate improved theoretical frameworks and the necessary data to test and refine them.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Same journal volume is assigned to 1977 and 1987
MinorThe references assign volume 7 of the International Journal of Health Services to both 1977 and 1987.
“Int J Health Services 1987; 7: 258-79.”
“Int J Health Services 1977; 7: 663-80.”
Citations
Cites
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Flagged first, then by citations
5 of the 131 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 9
- Airs, Waters, Places. In: Lloyd GER (ed.). Hippocratic Writings. London: Penguin Books, 1983, pp.148–69.
- Krieger N. Discrimination and health. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I (eds). Social Epidemiology. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000, pp.36–75.
- Schnall PL, Kern R. Hypertension in American society: an introduction to historical materialist epidemiology. In: Conrad P, Kern R (eds). The Sociology of Health and Illness: Critical Perspectives. New York: St Martin's Press, 1981, pp.97–122.
- Navarro V. Editorial: a beginning. Int J Health Services1971;1:1–2.
- Black D, Morris JN, Smith C, Townsend P. The Black Report (Report of the Working Group on Inequalities in Health). London: Penguin, 1982.
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- Mayr E, Provine B (eds). The Evolutionary Synthesis: Perspectives on the Unification of Biology; with a new preface by Ernst Mayr. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. (1st Edn: 1980).
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Gehlbach, D. L., Vázquez, E., Ortiz, G., Li, E., Sánchez, C. B., Rodríguez, S., Pozar, M., & Cheney, A. M. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13375-7 · Cited by 35
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Caxaj, C., & Gill, N. K. (2017) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732316648129 · Cited by 34
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Origins of heath inequalities: the case for Allostatic Load
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The effect of food insecurity on health status of adolescents in Ethiopia: longitudinal study
Jebena, M. G., Lindstrom, D., Lachat, C. K., Belachew, T., & Kolsteren, P. W. (2017) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-017-4406-5 · Cited by 34
Lomas, T., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2021) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2021.1991453 · Cited by 47
Hoffmann, S., Sander, L., Wachtler, B., Blume, M., Schneider, S. O., Herke, M., Pischke, C. R., Fialho, P. M. M., Schuettig, W., Tallarek, M., et al. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12603-4 · Cited by 36
Explaining suicide: Identifying common themes and diverse perspectives in an urban Mumbai slum
Parkar, S. R., Nagarsekar, B. B., & Weiss, M. G. (2012) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.07.002 · Cited by 34
Avan, B. I., & Kirkwood, B. R. (2009) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2008.084046 · Cited by 34
Krieger, N. (2024) · International Journal of Social Determinants of Health and Health Services · doi:10.1177/27551938241269188 · Cited by 41
Self-citationSteele, S. J., Abrahams, N., Duncan, K., Woollett, N., Hwang, B., O’Connell, L., Cutsem, G. V., & Shroufi, A. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216449 · Cited by 40
Democracy and Population Health
McGuire, J. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108778725 · Cited by 33
Examination of Racial and Ethnic Differences in Deceased Organ Donation Ratio Over Time in the US
Kernodle, A., Zhang, W., Motter, J. D., Doby, B. L., Liyanage, L. N., Garonzik‐Wang, J., Jackson, K. R., Boyarsky, B. J., Massie, A. B., Purnell, T. S., et al. (2021) · JAMA Surgery · doi:10.1001/jamasurg.2020.7083 · Cited by 34
Winburn, A. P., Wolf, K. M., & Marten, M. G. (2022) · Forensic Science International Synergy · doi:10.1016/j.fsisyn.2022.100289 · Cited by 34
The second wave of violence scholarship: South African synergies with a global research agenda
Bowman, B., Stevens, G., Eagle, G. T., Langa, M., Kramer, S., Kiguwa, P., & Nduna, M. (2015) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.10.014 · Cited by 35
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Metadata
- Authors
- Krieger, N.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Krieger, Nancy
- ORCID
- Krieger, Nancy
- Venue
- International Journal of Epidemiology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2001-08
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 668-677
- ISSN
- 0300-5771 (ISSN-L)
- 1464-3685
- OpenAlex
- W2111628008
- Cited by
- 2,155
- References
- 131
- Citations by year
- 2026: 145 · 2025: 112 · 2024: 132 · 2023: 158 · 2022: 144 · 2021: 127 · 2020: 101 · 2019: 111 · 2018: 86 · 2017: 93 · 2016: 102 · 2015: 99 · 2014: 87 · 2013: 85 · 2012: 70
- FWCI
- 16.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- International Journal of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University Libraries (University of Maryland) (submittedVersion)
- Digital Repository at the University of Maryland (University of Maryland College Park)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Historical and modern epidemiology studies
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Health › Public Health and Social Inequalities
- Keywords
- embodiment, health disparities, social determinants of health, causality, agency, accountability, race and health
- MeSH terms
- Epidemiology, Humans, Politics, Social Environment, Social Medicine, Environmental Medicine
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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