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Control Sampling Strategies for Case-Crossover Studies: An Assessment of Relative Efficiency
Abstract
The case-crossover study design is a method to assess the effect of transient exposures on the risk of onset of acute events. Control information for each case is based on his/her past exposure experience, and a self-matched analysis is conducted. Empiric evaluation of five approaches to the analysis of case-crossover data from a study of heavy physical exertion and acute myocardial infarction onset is shown. The data presented are from the Onset Study, a case-crossover study of the determinants of myocardial infarction onset conducted in 45 centers from August 1989 to October 1992. In model 1, exactly one control period (matched on clock-time) was sampled per case. In models 2-4, up to 25 control periods were sampled, and the effect of clock-time on the baseline hazard of infarction was modeled. In model 5, a census of the person-time experienced by each subject over the year preceding the infarction was sampled. The 95% confidence interval for model 1 was 2.7 times wider, and the relative efficiency, defined as v infinity/vM, where vM represents the asymptotic variance estimate of the estimated log relative risk with M control periods sampled per case, was only about 14% of model 5. In models 2-4, the efficiency increased with the number of control periods, regardless of the modeling assumptions. Even with many control periods sampled, models 2-4 achieved only half the efficiency of model 5. The control sampling strategy in any given case-crossover study should be selected with the trade-offs between precision and potential biases of the estimates in mind.
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“Because control information for each subject is based on his or her own past exposure experience, self-matching eliminates confounding by risk factors that are constant within individuals over the sampling period but often differ between study subjects.”
From Coffee and acute ischemic stroke onset: The Stroke Onset Study (2010) · cites this paper as [12]
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Short-term effects of air pollution on acute myocardial infarctions in Shanghai, China, 2013-2014.
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Tsai, S., Chiu, H., & Yang, C. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16111916 · Cited by 21
Differential Misclassification of Exposure in Case-Crossover Studies
Möller, J., Hessén‐Söderman, A., & Hallqvist, J. (2004) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000135177.10332.42 · Cited by 20
“Statistical Analyses Conditional logistic regression was used for all matched-pair interval analyses.(9) The control windows were matched to the specific case window by time of day, and in the control-crossover analyses by the time of day of the “pseudo case window.”
MethodLombardi, D. A. (2010) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/33.3.283 · Cited by 20
Core Concepts: Self‐Controlled Designs in Pharmacoepidemiology
Bots, S. H., Brown, J. P., Wong, A. Y. S., Martin, I., Douglas, I., Klungel, O. H., & Schultze, A. (2025) · Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety · doi:10.1002/pds.70071 · Cited by 24
“In general, the CCO's efficiency increases with increasing number of referent windows [23], although there is a trade-off, as a greater number of referent windows risks exacerbating bias due to time-varying confounding if referent windows get further away from the anchor [2].”
Thornhill, M. H., Gibson, T. B., Pack, C., et al. (2022) · The Journal of the American Dental Association · doi:10.1016/j.adaj.2022.10.001 · Cited by 19
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“In work-practice exposures, 146 participants reported performing an unusual work task, including putting the hand in unusual position (24%), unjamming (16), hammering or pressing task (16%), material handling (15%), machine maintenance (11%), and cutting (8%).”
BackgroundMethodThe case–crossover and case–time‐control designs in pharmacoepidemiology
Donnan, P. T., & Wang, J. (2001) · Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety · doi:10.1002/pds.590 · Cited by 19
A case crossover study of triggers for hand injuries in commercial fishing
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“Data were analyzed using the casecrossover technique (Maclure, 1991; Marshall and Jackson, 1993; Mittleman et al., 1995).”
MethodAmbient Air Pollution and Risk for Stroke Hospitalization: Impact on Susceptible Groups
Chang, C.-H., Chen, S., Liu, P.-H., Huang, K., Chiu, I.-M., Pan, H.-Y., & Cheng, F. (2022) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics10070350 · Cited by 18
“In brief, the case-crossover study design is an alternative type of case-control study in which within-subject comparisons are performed using “case” and “control” periods [18,19].”
MethodInstitutional misalignment and escape-based FDI: A prospect theory lens
Clampit, J. A., Gaffney, N. T., Fabian, F., & Stafford, T. (2023) · International Business Review · doi:10.1016/j.ibusrev.2022.102099 · Cited by 19
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Self-citationTriggers of acute myocardial infarction
Colombo, A., Proietti, R., Čulić, V., Lipovetzky, N., Viecca, M., & Danna, P. (2014) · Journal of Cardiovascular Medicine · doi:10.2459/jcm.0b013e3283641351 · Cited by 17
The impact of emotions on the heart
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Self-citationViboud, C. G. (2001) · Journal of Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/s0895-4356(01)00404-8 · Cited by 17
Association between infectious diseases and type 1 diabetes: a case-crossover study
Yang, Z., Zhou, F., Dorman, J. S., Wang, H., Zu, X., Mazumdar, S., & LaPorte, R. E. (2006) · Pediatric Diabetes · doi:10.1111/j.1399-543x.2006.00163.x · Cited by 16
“The case-crossover design has been successfully applied to investigate events that might precipitate MI and many other disorders (13) (14) (15) (16) .”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAir pollution and hospital admissions for pneumonia: Are there potentially sensitive groups?
Cheng, M., Tsai, S., Chiu, H., et al. (2009) · Inhalation Toxicology · doi:10.3109/08958370902744855 · Cited by 16
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“In order to increase statistical efficiency [20], there were four matched control periods, each 15 days long, at 350–365, 255–270, 165–180, and 75–90 days before the collision.”
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“The data were analyzed using the case-crossover technique (Maclure, 1991; Marshall and Jackson, 1993; Mittleman et al., 1995).”
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The Use of the Case-Crossover Design in Studying Illicit Drug Use
Wu, L.-T. T., & Anthony, J. C. (2000) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.3109/10826080009148431 · Cited by 16
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Lack of Adjustment Latitude at Work as a Trigger of Taking Sick Leave—A Swedish Case-Crossover Study
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“The odds ratios are considered as estimates of the incidence rate ratio comparing exposed to unexposed conditions [8,14,15].”
BackgroundA case-crossover study of laceration injuries in pork processing
Lander, L. I., Sorock, G. S., Stentz, T. L., et al. (2012) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oemed-2011-100339 · Cited by 14
“19 A bias away from the null hypothesis of no association between transient risk factors and laceration injuries may occur if exposures just before the injury are overestimated and exposures in the previous workweek are underestimated.(20) We previously reported results from a brief reliability assessment showing that…”
BackgroundSelf-citationRequena, G., Logie, J. W., Martín‐Merino, E., et al. (2015) · Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety · doi:10.1002/pds.3822 · Cited by 14
Major Life Events as Potential Triggers of Sudden Cardiac Arrest
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“founding factors, and improved efficiency to estimate associations by use of multiple subject-matched control periods.(26) Spouses reported family/friend events occurring during the year before the sudden cardiac arrest.”
MethodTsai, S., Chen, P., Yang, Y., et al. (2012) · Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health · doi:10.1080/15287394.2012.641202 · Cited by 14
“Data were analyzed using the case-crossover technique ( Maclure 1991 ; Marshall and Jackson 1993 ; Mittleman et al.”
MethodAcute Low Back Pain? Do Not Blame the Weather—A Case-Crossover Study
Beilken, K., Hancock, M. J., Maher, C. G., et al. (2016) · Pain Medicine · doi:10.1093/pm/pnw126 · Cited by 14
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Huang, Y.-T., Chen, C.-C., Ho, Y.-N., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18094400 · Cited by 13
“We used an alternative design of the Poisson time series regression model called the time-stratified and case-crossover design to analyze the data [26,27].”
MethodPaternoster, M., Steichen, O., Lapeyre-Mestre, M., Blanchon, T., Rossignol, L., Vilcu, A., Launay, T., Sarazin, M., Bagheri, H., Conte, C., et al. (2021) · Journal of clinical pharmacology · doi:10.1002/jcph.2003 · Cited by 13
“Antiplatelet agent 250 104 (42) 76 (30) 75 (30) 79 (32) 1.”
Lander, L. I., Sorock, G. S., Stentz, T. L., et al. (2010) · Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1136/oem.2009.048611 · Cited by 13
“29 Exposures in the hazard period may be overestimated and exposures in the control period underestimated, resulting in bias away from the null hypothesis of no association between transient risk factors and laceration injuries.(15) The reliability assessment showed that the reliability of workers’ recall of transient…”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Role of Proximal Maternal Supervision in Children’s Risk for Injury in a Low-Income Sample
Damashek, A. L., & Corlis, M. (2017) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsx044 · Cited by 13
Aerobic Fitness and Risk of Ventricular Arrhythmia Following Physical Exertion
Chahal, H. S., Mostofsky, E., Mittleman, M. A., Suskin, N., Speechley, M. R., Skanes, A. C., Leong‐Sit, P., Manlucu, J., Yee, R. K., Klein, G. J., et al. (2015) · Canadian Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.cjca.2015.12.026 · Cited by 13
“In the case-crossover design, data are stratified according to each individual event.(8,13) In each stratum, the patient’s exposure within an hour of the event (hazard period) is compared with their expected frequency of exposure in a random hour on the basis of their usual exposure time.”
Self-citationCase‐only designs for studying the association of antidepressants and hip or femur fracture
de Groot, M., Candore, G., Uddin, M. J., Souverein, P. C., Ali, M. S., Belitser, S. V., Huerta, C., Groenwold, R. H. H., Alvarez, Y., Slattery, J., et al. (2016) · Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety · doi:10.1002/pds.3850 · Cited by 13
Cannabis Use and Traffic Injuries
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“Injured athletes reported increased hassles in the week prior to injury compared with uninjured athletes, but the analysis grouped participants by outcome and then observed exposures without considering that both exposure and covariates varied over time, a known source of potential bias [34,35].”
ResultSelf-citationTraffic Congestion as a Risk Factor for Mortality in Near-Road Communities: A Case-Crossover Study
Pedde, M., Szpiro, A. A., & Adar, S. D. (2017) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwx130 · Cited by 12
“Congestedminute-kilometers, 24 hours prior to time of death 10 (10) 25 (20) 75 (70)”
BackgroundAcute flares of knee osteoarthritis in primary care: a feasibility and pilot case-crossover study
Thomas, M. J., Butler-Walley, S., Rathod‐Mistry, T., Mayson, Z., Parry, E. L., Pope, C., Neogi, T., & Peat, G. (2018) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-018-0359-4 · Cited by 11
Mental Stress During Daily Life Triggers Myocardial Ischemia
Mittleman, M. A. (1997) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03540430070036 · Cited by 12
Self-citationEngström, K., Hallqvist, J., Möller, J., et al. (2004) · Scandinavian Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1080/14034940410028253 · Cited by 12
“Standard Mantel–Haenszel methods for follow-up studies with sparse data in each stratum were used for the statistical analyses [24,25].”
MethodCheng, C.-Y., Tseng, Y.-L., Huang, K., et al. (2022) · Toxics · doi:10.3390/toxics10050247 · Cited by 11
“A case-crossover study design is a special type of case-control study, and within-subject comparisons were performed between case and control periods [26,27].”
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Conti, S., Lafranconi, A., Zanobetti, A., et al. (2017) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.05.029 · Cited by 11
“…investigated the short-term relationship between exposure to PM10 and drug purchases using a time-stratified case-crossover design, with control days matched by year, month and day of the week (Mittleman et al., 1995); thus we adjusted for long-term trend, seasonality and day of the week by design.”
Physical Exertion Immediately Prior to Placental Abruption: A Case-Crossover Study
Chahal, H. S., Gelaye, B., Mostofsky, E., Sánchez, S. E., Mittleman, M. A., Maclure, M., Pacora, P., Torres, J. A., Romero, R. J., Ananth, C. V., et al. (2018) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwy138 · Cited by 11
Self-citationNirel, R., Adar, S. D., Dayan, U., Vakulenko‐Lagun, B., Golovner, M., Levy, I., Alon, Z., & Peretz, A. (2018) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp2596 · Cited by 13
“Next, we investigated the association between pollution concentrations and cardiac events using a case-crossover design (Maclure 1991; Mittleman et al. 1995) with time-strati fi ed referent selection (Janes et al. 2005).”
Groenwold, R. H. H., & van Smeden, M. (2017) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000000710 · Cited by 11
Kunitsu, Y., Hira, D., Nakagawa, S., Tsuda, M., Morita, S., Yamamoto, Y., & Terada, T. (2025) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Health Care and Sciences · doi:10.1186/s40780-025-00485-8 · Cited by 10
Association of summer temperatures and acute kidney injury in South Korea: a case-crossover study
Ahn, J., Bae, S., Chung, B. H., Myong, J., Park, M. Y., Lim, Y., & Kang, M. (2022) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyac163 · Cited by 9
Lohsoonthorn, V., Rattananupong, T., Wynne, K., Thomas, C., Chahal, H. S., Berhane, H. Y., Mostofsky, E., Wuttithai, N., & Gelaye, B. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0210959 · Cited by 11
Individual Aircraft Noise Exposure Assessment for a Case-Crossover Study in Switzerland
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Chen, C., & Yang, C. (2017) · Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health · doi:10.1080/15287394.2017.1376407 · Cited by 10
Ri, K., Fukasawa, T., Yoshida, S., Takeuchi, M., & Kawakami, K. (2023) · Pharmacotherapy The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy · doi:10.1002/phar.2761 · Cited by 9
Differential clubbing and cyanosis: a pathognomonic finding in cardiology
Moccetti, F., Kaufmann, B. A., & Tobler, D. (2014) · European Heart Journal · doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehu020 · Cited by 9
Advancing analytic epidemiologic studies of occupational injuries
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Cellular Telephones and Traffic Accidents
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Short-Term Effect of Coarse Particles on Daily Mortality Rate in A Tropical City, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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“Data were analyzed using the casecrossover technique (Maclure, 1991; Marshall and Jackson, 1993; Mittleman et al., 1995).”
MethodCaron, A., Chazard, E., Muller, J., Périchon, R., Ferret, L., Koutkias, V. G., Beuscart, R., Beuscart, J., & Ficheur, G. (2016) · Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association · doi:10.1093/jamia/ocw132 · Cited by 8
“A paired-matched interval approach was used, as described by Mittleman et al. 28 Conditional logistic regression was used to compare the likelihood of exposure during each interval of the case period with that of the control period.”
MethodDrewes, A. M., Bonnesen, K., Hauge, E. M., et al. (2024) · Rheumatology International · doi:10.1007/s00296-024-05584-7 · Cited by 8
“By having a 120-day gap between the last reference date and the outcome date, compared with only a 60-day gap between the individual reference dates, we secured a 60-day washout window [26].”
BackgroundTriggering of Cardiac Arrhythmias
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Snowfall, Temperature, and the Risk of Death From Myocardial Infarction: A Case-Crossover Study
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“As Mittleman [23] proposed about control sampling strategies for case-crossover studies, we used a third measurement 4 months after the casetime-window as additional time window.”
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Does Starting to Smoke Cigars Trigger Onset of Cannabis Blunt Smoking?
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Red blood cell transfusion, hyperkalemia, and heart failure in advanced chronic kidney disease
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Low Workload as a Trigger of Sick Leave
Hultin, H., Möller, J., Alexanderson, K. A. E., Johansson, G., Lindholm, C., Lundberg, I., & Hallqvist, J. (2012) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0b013e31823fdf68 · Cited by 6
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“The “Usual Frequency Approach” led to the smallest variance of the estimated logarithm of the incidence rate ratio, and hence narrowest confidence interval, but at the cost of assuming no within-individual confounding unless further information is available on the complex conditional relationships among all determinan…”
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Revealing and Addressing Length Bias and Heterogeneous Effects in Frequency Case-Crossover Studies
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“Am J Epidemiol 2004;159:596–602 allow for cofactor effects by simultaneously modeling other exposures, as done in existing approaches (8, 10).”
BackgroundCurrent View of Epidemiologic Study Designs for Occupational and Environmental Lung Diseases
Tager, I. B. (2000) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.2307/3454397 · Cited by 8
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Evaluation of the Case–Crossover (CCO) Study Design for Adverse Drug Event Detection
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Privacy-preserving analysis of time-to-event data under nested case-control sampling
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Case-crossover and case-time-control studies: concepts, design, and analysis
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Relation of outbursts of anger and the acute risk of placental abruption: A case‐crossover study
Chahal, H. S., Gelaye, B., Mostofsky, E., Salazar, M., Sánchez, S. E., Ananth, C. V., & Williams, M. A. (2019) · Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology · doi:10.1111/ppe.12591 · Cited by 5
Violence among mentally disordered offenders : Risk and protective factors
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“In addition, a usual frequency analysis will be conducted.[7] The usual frequency analysis will produce an alternative risk estimate by using negative binomial regression to contrast the incidence rate of exposures observed in the randomly selected week with the incidence rate of exposures in the case period.”
MethodHallas, J., & Maclure, M. (2024) · Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety · doi:10.1002/pds.5850 · Cited by 4
“Finally, the point- in-time approach allows the researcher to have short intervals between these points, for example, if there is a short look-back prior to the outcomes and the researcher wants to have the added statistical precision offered by using multiple reference points in time [2].”
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Bakian et al. Respond to "Assessing Air Pollution and Suicide Risk"
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“Statistically, although minimizing bias is an important consideration, it should not be done at the expense of efficiency, which is a greater concern in case-crossover studies given small effect sizes (9, 10).”
BackgroundChanges in the Dose of Benzodiazepines and Falls in Elderly Inpatients in an Acute-care Hospital
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“, 1995 (29) suggested a 1:4 ratio for case-crossover studies.”
BackgroundTheory and practice of Case-Crossover Study Design.
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“A sizeable advantage accompanying the use of such a large number of control periods is the dramatic increase in the efficiency of the resulting risk estimates (Mittleman et al., 1995).”
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Triggering of myocardial infarction by physical activity, emotional stress and sexual activity
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Metadata
- Authors
- Mittleman, M. A., Maclure, M., & Robins, J. M.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Mittleman, Murray A.
- Venue
- American Journal of Epidemiology
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 1995-07-01
- Volume
- 142
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 91-98
- ISSN
- 0002-9262 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-6256
- OpenAlex
- W2151672696
- Cited by
- 340
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 23 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 10.32
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL41016, R01HL041016)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods and Inference
- Keywords
- case-crossover design, relative efficiency, acute myocardial infarction, transient exposure, asymptotic variance
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Myocardial Infarction, Risk, Models, Statistical, Exercise, Bias, Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic, Case-Control Studies, Cross-Over Studies
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