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Intergenerational Ties in Context: Grandparents Caring for Grandchildren in China
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Guided by theories and empirical research on intergenerational relationships, we examine the phenomenon of grandparents caring for grandchildren in contemporary China. Using a longitudinal dataset (China Health and Nutrition Survey), we document a high level of structural and functional solidarity in grandparent-grandchildren relationships. Intergenerational solidarity is indicated by a high rate of coresidence between grandchildren and grandparents, a sizable number of skipped-generation households (no parent present), extensive childcare involvement by non-coresidential grandparents, and a large amount of care provided by coresidential grandparents. Multivariate analysis further suggests that grandparents' childcare load is adaptive to familial needs, as reflected by the characteristics of the household, household members, and work activities of the mothers.
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“Intergenerational solidarity is seen in extensive childcare provided by grandparents, in the form of either coresidence (including skippedgeneration arrangements, with no parent present) or support provided by noncoresident grandparents (Chen et al. 2011).”
From The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy (2021) · cites this paper as Chen et al. 2011
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“With only one child, parents are making more of an effort to invest in their children's education and to pay for their housing and other expenses (Davis & Sensenbrenner 2000, Zhai & Gao 2010, Chen et al. 2011).”
From The Social and Sociological Consequences of China's One-Child Policy (2021) · cites this paper as Chen et al. 2011
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Hook, J. V., & Glick, J. E. (2020) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12621 · Cited by 160
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“Culturally influenced by individualism (Yan, 2009), young couples now value private space and prefer to live independently (Chen et al. 2011).”
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The Rise of Maternal Grandmother Child Care in Urban Chinese Families
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The Children of China's Great Migration
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“In family sociology, there is a rapidly increasing amount of interest in the role of grandparents in families (Birditt et al., 2012; Chen et al., 2011; Hagestad, 2006; Luo et al., 2012; Silverstein and Marenco, 2001).”
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BackgroundExamining Chinese adult children’s motivations for traveling with their parents
Wang, W., Yi, L., Wu, M.-Y., Pearce, P. L., & Huang, S. S. (2018) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2018.06.024 · Cited by 86
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Gruijters, R. J., & Ermisch, J. (2018) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12538 · Cited by 83
“For example, it is very common for Chinese grandparents to take care of young children, enabling the parents to engage in full-time work (Chen et al., 2011).”
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The motherhood penalty in China: Magnitudes, trends, and the role of grandparenting
Meng, L., Zhang, Y., & Zou, B. (2022) · Journal of Comparative Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jce.2022.10.005 · Cited by 72
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Floating grandparents: Rethinking family obligation and intergenerational support
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“Previous studies on grandparental childcare assistance suggest that grandparents are the most important childcare providers in China and Taiwan (Chen, Short, and Entwisle 2000; Chen, Liu, and Mair 2011 for China; Chi and Hsin 1996 for Taiwan).”
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“However, MGMs also live with and provide out-of-home care for their GCs in surprising numbers (35), and there is some evidence that MGMs now provide more child care than PGMs in urban centers (37).”
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Luo, Y., Qi, M., Huntsinger, C. S., Zhang, Q., Xuan, X., & Wang, Y. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105057 · Cited by 70
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“In 27 % of surveyed families, children were cared for at paternal grandparents’ households and nearly 13 % at maternal grandparents’ households (Chen et al. 2011).”
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MacLachlan, I. R., & Gong, Y. R. (2022) · Cities · doi:10.1016/j.cities.2022.103960 · Cited by 57
Coresidence with elderly parents and female labor supply in China
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“The few articles touching upon the subject in China have revealed that grandparents in multi-generational households undertake a tremendous amount of grandchild care, which significantly reduces a mother’s involvement in childcare (Chen, Liu, and Mair 2011; Chen, Short, and Entwisle 2000).”
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‘Save the children!’: Governing left-behind children through family in China’s Great Migration
Gu, X. (2021) · Current Sociology · doi:10.1177/0011392120985874 · Cited by 55
“Due to limited public care provision, grandparents have become an important source of informal childcare support in Chinese families, in either rural (Chen, 2004; Cong and Silverstein, 2008) or urban settings (Chen et al., 2011; Goh, 2011).”
BackgroundThe Effectiveness of Interventions for Grandparents Raising Grandchildren: A Meta-Analysis
Chan, K. L., Chen, M., Lo, C. K. M., Chen, Q., Kelley, S. J., & Ip, P. (2018) · Research on Social Work Practice · doi:10.1177/1049731518798470 · Cited by 52
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“However, in contemporary rural and urban China, it has become increasingly common for grandparents to play a major caregiving role (Chen et al., 2011).”
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Hu, S., & Mu, Z. (2020) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2020.102497 · Cited by 58
Liang, X., Lin, Y., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Wang, Z. (2021) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cad.20442 · Cited by 51
“This is also consistent with the Confucian value of filial piety that governed family relationships in China for thousands of years (F. Chen et al., 2011).”
ResultChina's aging population: A review of living arrangement, intergenerational support, and wellbeing
Zhao, L. (2023) · Health care science · doi:10.1002/hcs2.64 · Cited by 50
Grandparenthood in China and Western Europe: An analysis of CHARLS and SHARE
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“This is usually explained by strong familialism and the filial piety culture, which is distinct in China (Chen & Liu, 2012; Chen, 2005; Chen et al., 2011; Hamilton, 1990; Kamo & Zhou, 1994; Lee, 2004; Zhang, Gu, & Luo, 2014).”
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“…resilience, authoritative parenting style), greater personal resources (better health) are not advantageous in managing difficult grandchildren, wherein among Chinese grandparents, a familistic orientation to raising such children (see Chen et al., 2011) may reinforce a norm of self-sacrifice.”
BackgroundSu, Y., Lau, C., & Rao, N. (2020) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.02.001 · Cited by 57
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Kim, K., Cheng, Y., Zarit, S. H., & Fingerman, K. L. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9331-5_7 · Cited by 50
“It is common for older parents who are healthy to assume the role of caring for their grandchildren within the same household, thereby providing emotional and social security to the younger generation (Chen et al., 2011).”
BackgroundFamily Identity Bundles and Holiday Decision Making
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Zhong, X., & Peng, M. (2020) · Social Inclusion · doi:10.17645/si.v8i2.2674 · Cited by 45
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Shen, K., Cai, Y., Wang, F., & Hu, Z. (2021) · International Journal of Social Welfare · doi:10.1111/ijsw.12492 · Cited by 42
Qiu, C., & Shum, K. K. (2021) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.11.012 · Cited by 51
The effects of parenting behavior on prosocial behavior of Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong
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Liao, S., Qi, L., Xiong, J., Yan, J., & Wang, R. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18010021 · Cited by 40
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“The proportion of grandparents coresiding with grandchildren is estimated to be as high as 45% (Chen et al., 2011).”
BackgroundLian, Q., Zuo, X., Lou, C., Gao, E., & Cheng, Y. (2014) · Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.2188/jea.je20140084 · Cited by 37
Infant frontal EEG asymmetry in relation with postnatal maternal depression and parenting behavior
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Liu, H., Feng, Z., Jiang, Q., & Feldman, M. W. (2019) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x19873358 · Cited by 36
Parenting style and the development of noncognitive ability in children
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Labor Market Outcomes of Professional Women with Two Children after the One‐Child Policy in China
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The Economics of Fertility: A New EraPreprint
Doepke, M., Hannusch, A., Kindermann, F., & Tertilt, M. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4114800 · Cited by 38
Internet use and fertility behavior among reproductive-age women in China
Nie, P., Xu, P., & Luo, T. (2022) · China Economic Review · doi:10.1016/j.chieco.2022.101903 · Cited by 35
Zhang, F., & Wu, Y. (2021) · Chinese Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1177/2057150x211028357 · Cited by 36
“…for offspring to form permanent or temporary stem families with their parents due to intergenerational relationship patterns, residential habits, family needs, the absence of state patronage, and inadequate social security systems (Chen et al., 2011; Ma et al., 2011; Shi, 2016; Wang, 2013).”
BackgroundYu, Y. (2020) · Feminist Media Studies · doi:10.1080/14680777.2020.1837909 · Cited by 34
Shi, X. (2022) · Journal of Rural Studies · doi:10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.03.018 · Cited by 32
Do parents matter? Intergenerational ties and fertility preferences in a low-fertility context
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Self-citationAssociation between Family Structure and Physical Activity of Chinese Adolescents
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Zimmer, Z., & Treleaven, E. (2020) · Population and Development Review · doi:10.1111/padr.12349 · Cited by 32
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“According to previous research, many elderly people in China share the responsibility of taking care of their grandchildren, which left limited time for them to work (35, 36).”
BackgroundKang, L., Jing, W., Liu, J., Ma, Q., Zhang, S., & Liu, M. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12880-z · Cited by 32
“Busy working parents often leave their children to their grandparents to raise [31, 32], which might mitigate this problem but bring childrearing pressure to grandparents [33].”
BackgroundChiu, T. Y., & Ho, E. L. (2020) · Asia Pacific Viewpoint · doi:10.1111/apv.12292 · Cited by 32
Yang, Y., Evandrou, M., & Vlachantoni, A. (2021) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x21000702 · Cited by 31
“This study uses grandchild caring as a proxy to examine the downward social support provided by older people or their spouse, with this approach having been utilised in previous research (Chen et al., 2011; Falkingham et al., 2020).”
MethodResultChen, H., & Zhu, Z. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10617-y · Cited by 30
Employment and Mental Health of the Chinese Elderly: Evidence from CHARLS 2018
Cheng, Y., Jian, L., & Ci, Q. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20042791 · Cited by 30
“Based on previous related research [9,28,29], this study examined the mechanism of employment on mental health through the three aspects of individual annual income, the financial support provided to children, and support received from children.”
BackgroundMethodGrandparent caregiving in Cambodian skip-generation households: Roles and impact on child nutrition.
Schneiders, M. L., Phou, M., Tum, V., Kelley, M., Parker, M., & Turner, C. (2021) · Maternal & Child Nutrition · doi:10.1111/mcn.13169 · Cited by 29
“They are usually brought about by labour migration (e.g. in South-east Asia: Ingersoll-Dayton et al., 2017; Knodel & Nguyen, 2015; and China: Chen et al., 2011, Cong & Silverstein, 2012), death of parents (e.g. in the context of HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa: Zimmer, 2009) or family crisis (e.g.…”
BackgroundFilial Norms, Altruism, and Reciprocity: Financial Support to Older Parents in China
Brasher, M. S. (2021) · Journal of Population Ageing · doi:10.1007/s12062-020-09316-0 · Cited by 33
Ao, X., Chen, X., & Zhao, Z. (2021) · China Economic Review · doi:10.1016/j.chieco.2021.101734 · Cited by 30
Wang, Y., & Gonzales, E. G. (2019) · China Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1080/17525098.2019.1591697 · Cited by 28
“The relationships are based on various household characteristics, including a sizable number of skipped generation households, and a great amount of childcare involvement by both co-residential and non- residential grandparents (Chen, Liu, and Mair 2011).”
BackgroundResultBlofield, M., Filgueira, F., Deere, C. D., Eichner, M., Eydal, G. B., Parreñas, R. S., Pillai, N., Rosenbluth, F. M., Rostgaard, T., Welchman, L., et al. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108399661.004 · Cited by 28
One Roof, Three Generations: Grandparental Co‐residence and Child Outcomes in China
Han, W., Whetung, T., & Mao, X. (2019) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12484 · Cited by 28
Ji, Y. (2025) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.70050 · Cited by 30
Miao, J., & Wu, X. (2019) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x19001272 · Cited by 27
“Multiple generations living together was considered a great joy for the elderly in traditional Chinese society which emphasised collective family goals over individual goals (Chen et al., 2011, 2014).”
BackgroundHong, X., Zhu, W., & Luo, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.822104 · Cited by 28
Through the gender lens: a comparison of family policy in Sweden and China
Guo, J., & Xiao, S. (2013) · China Journal of Social Work · doi:10.1080/17525098.2013.840663 · Cited by 28
Intergenerational family relations in reform China: Background and context
Barbalet, J. M. (2025) · The Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/00380261251347725 · Cited by 26
Contextualizing productive aging in Asia: Definitions, determinants, and health implications
Ko, P., & Yeung, W. J. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.01.016 · Cited by 28
Wallace, C. (2019) · International Sociology · doi:10.1177/0268580919885282 · Cited by 26
Metadata
- Authors
- Chen, F., Liu, G., & Mair, C. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Maryland, College Park (US)
- North Carolina State University (US)
- University of Maryland, Baltimore County (US)
- Corresponding author
- Chen, F.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Social Forces
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2011-12-01
- Volume
- 90
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 571-594
- ISSN
- 0037-7732 (ISSN-L)
- 1534-7605
- PMC
- PMC3337769
- OpenAlex
- W2065101978
- Cited by
- 685
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 79 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 109 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 30 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 8
- FWCI
- 20.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Social Forces (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Maryland Shared Open Access Repository (USMAI Consortium) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) (submittedVersion)
- Duke Law Scholarship Repository (Duke University) (submittedVersion)
- Digital Repository at the University of Maryland (University of Maryland College Park)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (K01HD047369)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational Family Dynamics and Caregiving
- Social Sciences › Demography › Family Dynamics and Relationships
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Keywords
- intergenerational ties, grandparent-grandchild relationships, grandparents caring for grandchildren, co-residence, skipped-generation households, child care, intergenerational solidarity, family structure, maternal employment, China
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