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Cited by 46Animal Behavior and Welfare StudiesComparative Animal Anatomy StudiesVeterinary Equine Medical Research

Foot pressure distributions during walking in African elephants (Loxodonta africana)

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Panagiotopoulou, Olga, Pataky, Todd C., Day, Madeleine, Hensman, Michael C., Hensman, Sean, Hutchinson, John R., Clemente, Christofer J.·2016·Royal Society Open Science
DOI 10.1098/rsos.160203PMC PMC5098964
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Abstract

Elephants, the largest living land mammals, have evolved a specialized foot morphology to help reduce locomotor pressures while supporting their large body mass. Peak pressures that could cause tissue damage are mitigated passively by the anatomy of elephants' feet, yet this mechanism does not seem to work well for some captive animals. This study tests how foot pressures vary among African and Asian elephants from habitats where natural substrates predominate but where foot care protocols differ. Variations in pressure patterns might be related to differences in husbandry, including but not limited to trimming and the substrates that elephants typically stand and move on. Both species' samples exhibited the highest concentration of peak pressures on the lateral digits of their feet (which tend to develop more disease in elephants) and lower pressures around the heel. The trajectories of the foot's centre of pressure were also similar, confirming that when walking at similar speeds, both species load their feet laterally at impact and then shift their weight medially throughout the step until toe-off. Overall, we found evidence of variations in foot pressure patterns that might be attributable to husbandry and other causes, deserving further examination using broader, more comparable samples.

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  • Elephant foot morphology allows them to load the most lateral aspect of their feet when walking, which along with decreasing pressure below the foot's fat pad helps maintain foot health.

    “elephant foot morphology allows them to load the most lateral aspect of their feet when walking which, along with decreasing pressure below the foot's fat pad, helps them maintain foot health (Panagiotopoulou et al., 2016).”

    From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Panagiotopoulou et al., 2016

    The Discussion reports that elephants walking on natural substrates load the lateral aspects of their feet most and have reduced pressure below the fat pad. It says this pattern *seems* to help maintain foot functional integrity, but cautions that it may not work in captive settings with unnatural substrates. The claim omits those qualifications and presents the health benefit more definitively. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • This locomotion mechanism does not work well for elephants housed in small enclosures with hard substrates.

    “This locomotion mechanism does not work well for elephants housed in small enclosures with hard substrates (Panagiotopoulou et al., 2016).”

    From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Panagiotopoulou et al., 2016

    The Discussion says the loading mechanism works well in wild and semi-natural habitats but “may not be effective” where unnatural substrates predominate. It also links small yards with hard substrates to greater foot-disease risk, while saying how hard substrates disrupt foot mechanics is unclear. The claim presents the mechanism’s failure as certain rather than possible. (LLM, conf=0.86)

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Research works printed but not linked: 7

  1. [7]Fowler ME 2001 An overview of foot conditions in Asian and African elephants. In The elephant's foot (eds Csuti B, Sargent EL, Bechert US), pp. 3– 7. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
  2. [8]Fowler ME 2001 Elephant foot care: concluding remarks. In The elephant's foot (eds Csuti B, Sargent EL, Bechert US), pp. 147– 149. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
  3. [9]Mikota SK, Sargent EL, Ranglack GS 1994 Medical management of elephants, pp. 147– 148. West Bloomfield, MI: Indira Publishing House.
  4. [10]Mikota SK 1999 Diseases of the elephant: a review. In Erkrankungen der Zootiere: Verhandlungsbericht des 39. Internationalen Symposiums uber die Erkrankungen der Zoo und Wildtiere, pp. 1–15.
  5. [18]Buckley C 2001 Captive elephant foot care: natural-habitat husbancdry techniques. In The elephant's foot (eds Csuti B, Sargent EL, Bechert US), pp. 53– 55. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
  6. [19]Roocroft A, Oosterhuis J 2001 Foot care for captive elephants. In The elephant's foot (eds Csuti B, Sargent EL, Bechert US), pp. 21– 52. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
  7. [34]Ramsay EC, Henry RW 2001 Anatomy of the elephant foot. In The elephant's foot (eds Csuti B, Sargent EL, Bechert US), pp. 9– 12. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.

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Authors
Panagiotopoulou, O., Pataky, T. C., Day, M., Hensman, M. C., Hensman, S., Hutchinson, J. R., & Clemente, C. J.
Affiliations
  • The University of Queensland (AU)
  • Shinshu University (JP)
  • Adventures with Elephants, PO Box 1500, Bela Bela 0480, Limpopo, South Africa
  • Royal Veterinary College (GB)
  • University of the Sunshine Coast (AU)
Corresponding author
Panagiotopoulou, Olga
ORCID
Venue
Royal Society Open Science
Publisher
The Royal Society
Published
2016-10
Volume
3
Issue
10
Pages
160203
ISSN
2054-5703 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1098/rsos.160203
PMC
PMC5098964
OpenAlex
W2529299785
Cited by
46
References
25
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 7 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 2 · 2017: 2
FWCI
7.18
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Royal Society Open Science (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RVC Research Online (Royal Veterinary College) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, The University of Queensland (Project Grant (606441) to OP)
Topics
  • Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Urology › Comparative Animal Anatomy Studies
  • Health Sciences › Veterinary › Equine › Veterinary Equine Medical Research
Keywords
Loxodonta africana, Asian elephant, plantar pressure, walking, center of pressure, foot morphology, captive elephants, husbandry, foot trimming, foot disorders, heel, locomotion

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