Housing and demographic risk factors impacting foot and musculoskeletal health in African elephants (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in north American zoos
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For more than three decades, foot and musculoskeletal conditions have been documented among both Asian [Elephas maximus] and African [Loxodonta africana] elephants in zoos. Although environmental factors have been hypothesized to play a contributing role in the development of foot and musculoskeletal pathology, there is a paucity of evidence-based research assessing risk. We investigated the associations between foot and musculoskeletal health conditions with demographic characteristics, space, flooring, exercise, enrichment, and body condition for elephants housed in North American zoos during 2012. Clinical examinations and medical records were used to assess health indicators and provide scores to quantitate conditions. Using multivariable regression models, associations were found between foot health and age [P value = 0.076; Odds Ratio = 1.018], time spent on hard substrates [P value = 0.022; Odds Ratio = 1.014], space experienced during the night [P value = 0.041; Odds Ratio = 1.008], and percent of time spent in indoor/outdoor exhibits during the day [P value < 0.001; Odds Ratio = 1.003]. Similarly, the main risk factors for musculoskeletal disorders included time on hard substrate [P value = 0.002; Odds Ratio = 1.050] and space experienced in indoor/outdoor exhibits [P value = 0.039; Odds Ratio = 1.037]. These results suggest that facility and management changes that decrease time spent on hard substrates will improve elephant welfare through better foot and musculoskeletal health.
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In 2016, a series of epidemiological studies of elephants in North American zoos revealed problems associated with ovarian acyclicity, health and musculoskeletal function, stereotypic behaviors, and high body condition scores.
“In 2016, a series of epidemiological studies of elephants in North American zoos revealed problems associated with ovarian acyclicity (45), health and musculoskeletal function (46), stereotypic behaviors (35), and high body condition scores (47).”
From Comparison of animal welfare assessment tools and methodologies: need for an effective approach for captive elephants in Asia (2024) · cites this paper as [46]
At the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, average walking distance for African elephants was estimated at 8.65-9.82 km/day.
“At the San Diego Zoo Safari Park, Miller, Andrews & Anderson (2012) and Miller, Hogan & Meehan (2016) estimated an average walking distance of 8.65-9.82km/day for African elephants.”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Miller, Hogan & Meehan, 2016
The Materials and Methods section defines mean daily walking distance as a variable, but gives no estimate for African elephants at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. Searches for the park and the 8.65–9.82 km/day range found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn nature, ~8-12 km/day are normal walking distances for elephants, with much greater distances (up to ~50 km/day) being common.
“Nevertheless, ~8-12 km/day are normal, with much greater distances (up to ~50 km/day) being common (Wall et al., 2013;Miller, Hogan & Meehan, 2016).”
From Continuing challenges of elephant captivity: the captive environment, health issues, and welfare implications (2024) · cites this paper as Miller, Hogan & Meehan, 2016
The Materials and Methods section defines mean daily walking distance for zoo elephants but gives no normal distance for elephants in nature. Searches for 8–12 km/day and 50 km/day found no passage in our copy supporting either figure or the claim that longer distances are common; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.74)
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Khammesri, S., Wantanajittikul, K., Namwongprom, K., Kittisirikul, N., Thitaram, C., Thitaram, N., Brown, J. L., & Kongsawasdi, S. (2026) · Frontiers in Veterinary Science · doi:10.3389/fvets.2026.1888434
- Authors
- Miller, M. A., Hogan, J. N., & Meehan, C. L.
- Affiliations
- Stellenbosch University (ZA)
- Corresponding author
- Miller, Michele A.
- Venue
- PLoS ONE
- Publisher
- Public Library of Science (PLoS)
- Published
- 2016-07-14
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- e0155223
- ISSN
- 1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4944946
- OpenAlex
- W2461700525
- Cited by
- 79
- References
- 22
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 8 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 10
- FWCI
- 19.48
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Institute of Museum and Library Services (LG-25-10-0033-10)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Animal Behavior and Welfare Studies
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Small Animals › Veterinary Orthopedics and Neurology
- Health Sciences › Veterinary › Equine › Veterinary Equine Medical Research
- Keywords
- Loxodonta africana, Asian elephant, foot health, musculoskeletal disorders, zoo animal welfare, risk factors, floor coverings, hard substrate, physical activity, environmental enrichment, body condition, housing space, captive elephants
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Animal Welfare, Animals, Zoo, Elephants, Female, Housing, Animal, Male, Musculoskeletal Diseases, North America, Risk Factors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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