Experimental distinction between the quantum and classical field-theoretic predictions for the photoelectric effect
Open accessAbstract
We have measured various coincidence rates between four photomultiplier tubes viewing cascade photons on opposite sides of dielectric beam splitters. This experimental configuration, we show, is sensitive to differences between the classical and quantum field-theoretic predictions for the photoelectric effect. The results, to a high degree of statistical accuracy, contradict the predictions by any classical or semiclassical theory in which the probability of photoemission is proportional to the classical intensity.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The first successful generation of single photons was based on a cascade transition of calcium atoms.
“The first successful generation of single photons (Clauser 1974) was based on a cascade transition of calcium atoms.”
From Single-photon sources (2005) · cites this paper as Clauser 1974
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Coherence Properties of Optical Fields
Mandeļ, L., & Wolf, E. (1965) · Reviews of Modern Physics · doi:10.1103/revmodphys.37.231 · Cited by 1,171 · see citing works
Fermi, E. (1932) · Reviews of Modern Physics · doi:10.1103/revmodphys.4.87 · Cited by 1,134 · see citing works
Fundamentals of quantum optics
L.R. (1969) · Nuclear Physics A · doi:10.1016/0375-9474(69)90295-4 · Cited by 904 · see citing works
Fluctuations of Photon Beams and their Correlations
Mandeļ, L. (1958) · Proceedings of the Physical Society · doi:10.1088/0370-1328/72/6/312 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
Photoelectric Mixing of Incoherent Light
Forrester, A. T., Gudmundsen, R. A., & Johnson, P. O. (1955) · Physical Review · doi:10.1103/physrev.99.1691 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Correlation Functions for Coherent Fields
Titulaer, U. M., & Glauber, R. J. (1965) · Physical Review · doi:10.1103/physrev.140.b676 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
Theory of photoelectric detection of light fluctuations
Mandeļ, L., Sudarshan, E. C. G., & Wolf, E. (1964) · Proceedings of the Physical Society · doi:10.1088/0370-1328/84/3/313 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Radiative Effects in Semiclassical Theory
Crisp, M. D., & Jaynes, E. T. (1969) · Physical Review · doi:10.1103/physrev.179.1253 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Experimenteller Nachweis des Einsteinschen Strahlungsr�cksto�es
Frisch, R. (1933) · The European Physical Journal A · doi:10.1007/bf01340182 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Quantum Theory of Interference Effects in the Mixing of Light from Phase-Independent Sources
Fano, U. (1961) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/1.1937827 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Long-Term Solutions in Semiclassical Radiation Theory
Stroud, C. R., & Jaynes, E. T. (1970) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.1.106 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
THE QUANTUM THEORY OF RADIATION
Weinberg, S. (2012) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139236799.012 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Atomic beam deflection by the light of a tunable dye laser
Schieder, R., WALTHER, H., & Wöste, L. H. (1972) · Optics Communications · doi:10.1016/0030-4018(72)90027-2 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Experimental Limitations to the Validity of Semiclassical Radiation Theories
Clauser, J. F. (1972) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.6.49 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationA quantum characterization of classical radiation
Aharonov, Y., Falkoff, D. L., Lerner, E. C., et al. (1966) · Annals of Physics · doi:10.1016/0003-4916(66)90079-0 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Atomic-beam deflection and broadening by recoils due to photon absorption or emission
Picqué, J. L., & Vialle, J. (1972) · Optics Communications · doi:10.1016/0030-4018(72)90043-0 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
The Question of Correlation between Photons in Coherent Light Rays
BRANNEN, E., & Ferguson, H. I. S. (1956) · Nature · doi:10.1038/178481a0 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Pike, E. R. (1974) · Optics & Laser Technology · doi:10.1016/0030-3992(74)90068-1 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Correlation of Photons in Cascade and the Coherence Time of the 6P13 State of Mercury
Nussbaum, G. H., & Pipkin, F. M. (1967) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.19.1089 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Исследование когерентных фотонных потоков методом совпадений
Адам, А., Яноши, Л., & Varga, P. (1955) · Acta Physica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae · doi:10.1007/bf03157829 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
The interference phenomena of light at very low intensities
Jánossy, L., & Náray, Z. (1957) · Acta Physica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae · doi:10.1007/bf03157612 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Radiative Effect in Semiclassical Theory
Crisp, M. D., & Jaynes, E. T. (1969) · Physical Review · doi:10.1103/physrev.185.2046.3 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Selected papers on coherence and fluctuations of light, 1850-1966
Mandeļ, L., & Wolf, E. (1990) · SPIE Optical Engineering Press eBooks · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Radiative Decay of the 2P State of Atomic Hydrogen: A Test of the Exponential Decay Law
Wessner, J. M., Anderson, D. K., & Robiscoe, R. T. (1972) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.29.1126 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Spontaneous Decay of Coherently Excited Rb
Gibbs, H. M. (1972) · Physical Review Letters · doi:10.1103/physrevlett.29.459 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Jaynes, E. T. (1970) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.2.260 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Beobachtungen mit dem Elektronenvervielfacher an kohärenten Lichtstrahlen
Ádám, A., Jánossy, L., & Varga, P. (1955) · Annalen der Physik · doi:10.1002/andp.19554510515 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Contradictions with the Neoclassical Theory of Radiation in Weakly Excited Multilevel Systems
Gibbs, H. M., Churchill, G. G., & Salamo, G. J. (1973) · Physical Review A · doi:10.1103/physreva.7.1766 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
An Experimental Test of Schrödinger's Theory
Gaviola, E. (1928) · Nature · doi:10.1038/122772a0 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The Bohr-Sommerfeld Theory and the Uncertainty Principle
Beers, Y. (1972) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/1.1986774 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
XXXIV. An experimental study of the quantum nature of X-rays
Givens, M. P. (1946) · The London Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science · doi:10.1080/14786444608561338 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Beers, Y. (1973) · American Journal of Physics · doi:10.1119/1.1987191 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- A. Adam, L. Janossy, and P. Varga, Acta Phys. Hung. 4, 301 (1955); .... Ann. Physik 16,408 (1955). -
- J. M. Jauch, in FouIi.dationsof quantUm Mechanics, International School.of Physics "Enrico Fenni'.' , course 49, 1970, edited by B. d'Espagnat (Academic Press, N. Y. 1971) p.20; J. M. Jauch, Are Quanta Real (Indiana University Press, Bloomington, Ind. 1973).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Grangier, P., Roger, G., & Aspect, A. (1986) · Europhysics Letters (EPL) · doi:10.1209/0295-5075/1/4/004 · Cited by 984 · see citing works
Lounis, B., & Orrit, M. (2005) · Reports on Progress in Physics · doi:10.1088/0034-4885/68/5/r04 · Cited by 908 · see citing works
Storage and retrieval of single photons transmitted between remote quantum memories
Chanelière, T., Matsukevich, D. N., Jenkins, S. D., Lan, S.-Y., Kennedy, T. A. B., & Kuzmich, A. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04315 · Cited by 785 · see citing works
II Quantum Phenomena in Optical Interferometry
Hariharan, P., & Sanders, B. C. (1996) · Progress in Optics · doi:10.1016/s0079-6638(08)70313-5 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
- Authors
- Clauser, J. F.
- Affiliations
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (US)
- Corresponding author
- Clauser, John F.
- Venue
- Physical Review D
- Publisher
- American Physical Society (APS)
- Published
- 1974-02-15
- Volume
- 9
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 853-860
- ISSN
- 0556-2821 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2074072681
- Cited by
- 367
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 14 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 9 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 2.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- escholarship.org
- Locations
- Physical review. D. Particles, fields, gravitation, and cosmology/Physical review. D. Particles and fields (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum and Classical Electrodynamics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Mechanics and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Electrodynamics and Casimir Effect
- Keywords
- photoelectric effect, coincidence frequency, photomultiplier tubes, semiclassical theory, intensity dependence
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
