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Cited by 48Digital Economy and Work TransformationLabor market dynamics and wage inequalityEmployment, Labor, and Gender Studies

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Automation, AI and the Future of Work in India

Open access
Hammer, Anita, Karmakar, Suparna·2021·Employee Relations: The International Journal
DOI 10.1108/er-12-2019-0452
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Abstract

Purpose: This research contributes to current debates on automation and the future of work, a much-hyped but under researched area, in emerging economies through a particular focus on India. It assesses the national strategy on artificial intelligence and explores the impact of automation on the Indian labour market, work and employment to inform policy. Design/methodology/approach: The article critically assesses the National Strategy on AI, promulgated by NITI Aayog (a national policy think tank), supported by the government of India and top industry associations, through a sectoral analysis. The key dimensions of the national strategy are examined against scholarship on the political economy of work in India to better understand the possible impact of automation on work. Findings: The study shows that technology is not free from the wider dynamics that surround the world of work. The adoption of new technologies is likely to occur in niches in the manufacturing and services sectors, while its impact on employment and the labour market more broadly, and in addressing societal inequalities will be limited. The national strategy, however, does not take into account the nature of capital accumulation and structural inequalities that stem from a large informal economy and surplus labour context with limited upskilling opportunities. This raises doubts about the effectiveness of the current policy. Research limitations/implications: The critical assessment of new technologies and work has two implications: first, it underscores the need for situated analyses of social and material relations of work in formulating and assessing strategies and policies; second, it highlights the necessity of qualitative workplace studies that examine the relationship between technology and the future of work. Practical implications: The article assesses an influential state policy in a key aspect of future of work–automation. Social implications: The policy assessed in this study would have significant social and economic outcomes for labour, work and employment in India. The study highlights the limitations of the state policy in addressing key labour market dimensions and work and employment relations in its formulation and implementation. Originality/value: This study is the first to examine the impact of automation on work and employment in India. It provides a critical intervention in current debates on future of work from the point of view of an important emerging economy defined by labour surplus and a large informal economy.

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  • Little attention is paid to the underlying social relations of production in which the practices of skills development occur, which is crucial for understanding the outcome of skills policies and practices.

    “Yet, little attention is paid to the underlying social relations of production in which the practices of skills development occur, which is crucial for understanding the outcome of skills policies and practices (Hammer & Karmakar, 2021; Petersen et al., 2022).”

    From The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Workers' Skills: Upskilling and Reskilling in Organisations (2023) · cites this paper as Hammer & Karmakar, 2021

  • Skilling and reskilling might be difficult in some countries with poor education and skill structures, exclusion of vulnerable segments of the workforce in the informal economy, and firms' reluctance to invest in training and reliance on informal skilling.

    “Skilling and reskilling, which are so central to harnessing and managing the impact of new technologies, might be difficult in some countries with poor education and skill structures, exclusion of vulnerable segments of the workforce in the informal economy , and firms' reluctance to invest in training and reliance of informal skilling (Hammer & Karmakar, 2021; Ramaswamy, 2018).”

    From The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Workers' Skills: Upskilling and Reskilling in Organisations (2023) · cites this paper as Hammer & Karmakar, 2021

  • The adoption of new technologies can be uneven and inconsistent, improving employment conditions for some individual workers but not changing employment conditions for the majority.

    “Hammer and Karmakar (2021) point out that the adoption of new technologies can be uneven and inconsistent. It may improve employment conditions for some individual workers but will not change employment conditions for the majority.”

    From The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Workers' Skills: Upskilling and Reskilling in Organisations (2023) · cites this paper as Hammer and Karmakar (2021)

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Citations

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Research works printed but not linked: 41

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Metadata

Authors
Hammer, A., & Karmakar, S.
Affiliations
  • University of Essex (GB)
  • Indian Institute of Metals (IN)
ORCID
Venue
Employee Relations: The International Journal
Publisher
Emerald
Published
2021-04-29
Volume
43
Issue
6
Pages
1327-1341
ISSN
  • 0142-5455 (ISSN-L)
  • 1758-7069
DOI
10.1108/er-12-2019-0452
OpenAlex
W3159256082
Cited by
48
References
4
Citations by year
2026: 20 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 1
FWCI
8.32
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc
Locations
  • Employee Relations (publishedVersion)
  • Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (acceptedVersion)
  • Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Economy and Work Transformation
  • Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Labor market dynamics and wage inequality
  • Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Industrial relations › Employment, Labor, and Gender Studies
Keywords
automation, artificial intelligence, future of work, NITI Aayog, labor market, employment, political economy of labor, informal economy, surplus labor, capital accumulation, structural inequality, upskilling, technology policy, India

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