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Cited by 28IoT and Edge/Fog ComputingIoT-based Smart Home SystemsSmart Grid Energy Management

Edge Computing and Microservices Middleware for Home Energy Management Systems

Open access
Ferreira, Luiz C. B. C., Borchardt, Andreza Da Rosa, Cardoso, Gustavo Dos Santos, Mendes Lemes, Dimas Augusto, Sousa, Gabriel Rodrigues Dos Reis de, Neto, Fernando Bauer, de Lima, Eduardo Rodrigues, Fraidenraich, Gustavo +2 more·2022·IEEE Access
DOI 10.1109/access.2022.3214229
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Abstract

A middleware software can be seem as an abstraction layer between hardware and user applications, that facilitates the development and deployment of services in various scenarios, such as those found in Home Energy Management Systems (HEMS). There are several middleware proposals for HEMS, with most of them taking the cloud computing approach. This approach is unconcerned about computing resources but raises a dependency on external connections. This paper presents a middleware for energy management systems, based on the concept of edge computing for smart homes. The paper presents a reference model for the proposed architecture, considering specific requirements for this type of application. The proposed architecture employs the concept of microservices for data access and system configuration. The proposed middleware is designed to work with embedded systems under computational constraints, such as processing capability and storage, to reduce costs and allow its application closer to the user. The middleware is open and customizable to meet the developer’s needs. The proposed solution was implemented and tested in a university laboratory, as well as at the Eldorado Research Institute to confirm the effectiveness of the middleware. The proposal stands out from others found in the literature as it can be implemented using low cost hardware. In addition to using microservices concepts, the proposed middleware is a valuable option for applications that need an edge computing approach. A performance analysis was carried out, using low cost hardware with limited resources. The results show that the proposal can handle a significant number of devices, offering low latency and low error rate, and consuming few processing resources and memory.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper presents an edge-computing middleware for Home Energy Management Systems (HEMS) that uses microservices and is designed for low-cost, resource-constrained hardware. Tests on an NXP i.Mx6 platform show it can handle up to 250 simultaneous devices with no errors and up to 400 with under 5% error rate, while consuming modest CPU and RAM.

Key findings

  • No errors occurred up to 250 devices for both 0.5 s and 5 s request intervals; at 400 simultaneous requests the error rate remained under 5%, while at 600 devices or more the error rate increased considerably due to overload.
  • In Scenario 2 (with load disaggregation), CPU consumption did not exceed 85% of available capacity; in Scenario 1 it did not exceed 65%. The disaggregation script alone consumed approximately 40% CPU in the worst case.
  • RAM usage was approximately 30% in Scenario 2 and 25% in Scenario 1; the disaggregation script consumed approximately 5% RAM. No significant difference was observed between 0.5 s and 5 s request intervals.
  • A 30-day test ran continuously with no faults. The total middleware disk size was approximately 130 MB, and the measurement database required 17 MB for five days of data. Estimated hardware cost was under US$ 40.

Methods

  • The middleware was designed for edge computing with microservices exposed via REST APIs, using an orchestrator to manage independent module processes. It was implemented with Python, SQLite, Django REST Framework, and an NXP i.Mx6 platform (396 MHz processor, 512 MB RAM, 32 GB storage, customized Debian-based Linux).
  • Proof-of-concept tests used six smart outlets connected to an LCD TV, tube TV, radio, air conditioner, and microwave oven. The outlets communicated via Wi-SUN HAN and transmitted voltage, current, power factor, active, reactive, and apparent power every 5 seconds; the middleware uploaded data to the cloud every 1 minute via MQTT.
  • Performance was evaluated with JMeter using the Receive_data microservice, 392-byte data packets, and two scenarios: S1 (basic middleware) and S2 (with load disaggregation). Tests varied simultaneous requests (10, 30, 50, 100, 250, 400, 600) and request intervals (0.5 s and 5 s), with 10 rounds per condition.

Limitations

  • The paper states that container technology was not used due to computational restrictions of the employed hardware.
  • The paper states that the total disk footprint of approximately 130 MB is an issue requiring attention for implementation on hardware platforms with limited storage space.
  • Evident from the text: performance tests focused on a single microservice (Receive_data) and a proof-of-concept with six smart outlets, so results may not generalize to all HEMS workloads or deployments. The paper also notes that no standard metrics exist for middleware performance, and metrics were defined according to the application context.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1109/access.2022.3214229

Cites

33 of 33 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

1 of 16 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Hardware requirements of middleware in the IoT context can be a concern.

    “However, hardware requirements of middleware in the IoT context can be a concern [28] [29] [30].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [28] source
    • cites [29] source
    • cites [30] source
  • Findingown data

    The proposed middleware consumes few processing resources and memory.

    “The results show that the proposal can handle a significant number of devices, offering low latency and low error rate, and consuming few processing resources and memory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Both scenarios yielded remarkably similar results.

    “An important conclusion from the tests was that both scenarios yielded remarkably similar results, demonstrating that the execution of an additional application on the mid-dleware (e.g., load disaggregation in our case) did not affect performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The proposed solution requires simpler hardware than other middleware approaches found in the literature.

    “This table also presents the hardware specification of our proposed solution, showing that it requires a simpler hardware.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Low-cost hardware platforms are typically associated with low computational power.
  • Findingown data

    No error occurred up to 250 devices, for both time intervals tested.

    “We can see that no error occurred up to 250 devices, for both time intervals tested.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 34
  • May combine two claims. 16

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    No significant difference was observed between the CPU results for 0.5s and 5s time intervals between requests.

    “Moreover, no significant difference was observed between the results for 0.5s and 5s time intervals between requests.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The total disk size of the middleware is approximately 130 MB.

    “Hence, the total disk size of the middleware is approximately 130 MB.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The middleware proved to be functional and fulfilled the requirements, achieving good performance concerning the proposed tasks.

    “The middleware proved to be functional and fulfilled the requirements, achieving good performance concerning the proposed tasks.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The proposed middleware is open at a Github project (RT-DSP/SHArM), promoting the specifications for HEMS applications.

    “Moreover, the proposed middleware is open at a Github project (RT-DSP/SHArM), promoting the specifications for HEMS applications.”
    • Also stated in: § VI. CONCLUSIONS · plain
      “It is an open middleware, which the APIs are available at Github project (RT-DSP/SHArM), alongside its complete documentation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Middleware platforms typically work under the concept of cloud computing, providing scalability, high processing capability, and nearly unlimited data storage capability.

    “Typically, middleware platforms work under the concept of cloud computing, providing scalability, high processing capability, and nearly unlimited data storage capability [3].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    All APIs provide collected information from the outlet organized in JSON format, allowing flexibility when manipulating variables via either the application or the cloud computing software.

    “It is noteworthy that all APIs provide the collected information from the outlet organized in JSON format, allowing flexibility when manipulating the variables, via either the application or the cloud computing software.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The cloud computing approach raises a dependency on external connections.

    “This approach is unconcerned about computing resources but raises a dependency on external connections.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The middleware modules are independent processes performing specific and well-defined tasks.

    “The modules are independent processes, performing specific and well-defined tasks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In general, IoT middleware platforms were not developed for low computational power hardware, preventing them from being used in an edge computing approach.

    “There are several middleware platforms for IoT available nowadays.In general, these platforms were not developed for low computational power hardware, preventing them to be used in an edge computing approach.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Low-cost hardware platforms are typically associated with low computational power.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    All functions are accessible via microservices, allowing an administrator to alter middleware configuration using a mobile App or Web interface.

    “All functions are accessible via microservices.Therefore, using an mobile App or Web interface, an administrator is allowed to alter the middleware configuration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The use of microservices to expose middleware functionalities provides scalability and accelerates development, enabling innovation and reducing the time to introduce innovative solutions.

    “The use of microservices to expose the middleware functionalities provides scalability and accelerates the development of the middleware, enabling innovation and reducing the time to introduce innovative solutions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The proposed middleware's characteristics distinguish it from others in the literature, where middleware platforms work predominantly under the cloud computing approach and use development architectures based on conventional Web services.

    “These characteristics distinguish this work from others found in the literature, where middleware platforms work predominantly under the cloud computing approach and use development architectures based on conventional Web services.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The proposed edge computing approach removes the requirement for external connections from internet or network operators.

    “This approach removes the requirement for external connections (from internet or network operators) and decreases the response time for the end-user.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: HEMS solutions have more stringent requirements than general IoT middleware.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The proposed approach uses microservices as a development architecture, providing more flexibility and ease of implementation of new features and modules.

    “Furthermore, our approach uses microservices as a development architecture, providing more flexibility and ease of implementation of new features and modules.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The literature review shows a predominance of the REST architecture in middleware development.

    “As far as the middleware development architecture is concerned, the literature review shows a predominance of the REST architecture.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [23] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The disk footprint is an issue that requires attention for implementation on hardware platforms with limited storage space.

    “The disk footprint is an issue that requires attention for implementation on hardware platforms with limited storage space.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Most IoT middleware proposals are based on the concept of Platform as a Service (PaaS).

    “A survey of these platforms is presented in [21], which shows that most proposals are based on the concept of Platform as a Service (PaaS).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Only registered users are allowed to access the APIs.

    “Only registered users are allowed to access the APIs”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Moving some middleware operations to the edge reduces delays observed by the end-user when accessing services for device control, consulting, and information registration.

    “Moving some of the middleware operations to the edge reduces the delays observed by the end-user when accessing services for device control, consulting, and information registration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The proposed middleware was implemented and tested in a university laboratory and at the Eldorado Research Institute.

    “The proposed solution was implemented and tested in a university laboratory, as well as at the Eldorado Research Institute to confirm the effectiveness of the middleware.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Moving data processing and device control closer to the end-user reduces latency and dependency on external communications, maintaining the system functional even in case of interruptions of Internet access.

    “An emerging trend in the IoT middleware context is to move data processing and device control closer to the enduser.This approach reduces latency and the dependency on external communications, maintaining the system functional even in the case of interruptions of Internet access.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [5] source
    • cites [3] source
    • cites [4] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The proposed middleware can be implemented using low cost hardware.

    “The proposal stands out from others found in the literature as it can be implemented using low cost hardware.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Each microservice features specific functions and accesses a unique database.

    “Each microservice features specific functions and accesses a unique database.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Moving data processing and device control closer to the end-user allows an additional security layer to be implemented between the edge and the cloud, leading to overall performance improvement.

    “Moreover, this approach allows an additional security layer to be implemented between the edge and the cloud, leading to an overall performance improvement of the services offered [5] [3] [4].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [5] source
    • cites [3] source
    • cites [4] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The independence of the modules is crucial because it provides flexibility and scalability to the middleware, allowing the addition of new modules without interfering with the operation of other modules.

    “The independence of the modules is crucial, as it provides flexibility and scalability to the middleware, allowing the addition of new modules without interfering the operation of other modules.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The local database was designed as a circular queue, replacing older data with newer data, to avoid performance degradation.

    “To address this issue, the local database was designed as a circular queue, where replacing older data with newer data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cloud and fog computing approaches add delays to the communication with end devices, potentially affecting the end-user experience and increasing cost.

    “However, these approaches add delays to the communication with enddevices [3], potentially affecting the end-user experience and increases the cost.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    All data are sent to the cloud computing software using authentication at the MQTT broker.

    “All data are sent to the cloud computing software using authentication at the MQTT broker”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Data entity feature provides interoperability with multiple existing devices.

    “This feature provides interoperability with multiple existing devices.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The middleware security is implemented through security protocols provided by the solutions and protocols employed in communication, data storage, and cloud computing.

    “The middleware security is implemented through the security protocols provided by the solutions and protocols employed in communication, data storage, and cloud computing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The microservice architecture inherently encapsulates the functions, not allowing direct access to any portion of the system.

    “The microservice architecture inherently encapsulates the functions, not allowing direct access to any portion of the system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    The alternative receive_data solution provides interoperability between the middleware and the devices.

    “This alternative solution provides interoperability between the middleware and the devices.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The unique-database characteristic of microservices ensures better resilience and performance of the middleware because reading and writing processes occur independently, avoiding a large number of simultaneous accesses to a single database.

    “This characteristic of microservices ensures better resilience and performance of the middleware since the reading and writing processes occur independently, thus avoiding a large number of simultaneous accesses to a single database.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Large databases working on hardware with low performance lead to delays and failures in queries and recordings.

    “Large databases working on hardware with low performance leads to delays and failures in queries and recordings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Every function offered by the basic modules is accessible through microservices using REST APIs.

    “Every function offered by these basic modules is accessible through microservices using REST APIs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The Data entity is accessible via a GET or POST request, allowing devices to send data using the CoAP standard or any other standard that supports HTTP requests.

    “The Data entity is accessible via a GET or POST request, allowing the devices to send the data using the CoAP standard or any other standard that supports HTTP requests.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    No standard metrics exist to analyze the performance of a middleware, and therefore metrics are defined according to the application context.

    “No standard metrics exist to analyze the performance of a middleware, and therefore metrics are defined according to the application context [26].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The middleware performance was tested using the approach presented in [26] and the JMeter framework [33].

    “The middleware performance were tested using the approach presented in [26] and the JMeter framework [33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [26] source
    • cites [33] 2021

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Ten rounds of tests were performed for different numbers of simultaneous requests: 10, 30, 50, 100, 250, 400, and 600.

    “Ten rounds of tests were performed for different numbers of simultaneous requests: 10, 30, 50, 100, 250, 400, and 600.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The proposed middleware is an affordable option for large-scale applications, providing all the features required for application in HEMS.

    “Hence, the proposed middleware is an affordable option for large-scale applications, providing all the features required for application in HEMS.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The middleware has the capability to support a large number of devices and therefore its ability to be used in small, medium, and large applications.

    “Furthermore, performance tests were carried out with the middleware that showed its capability to support a large number of devices and, therefore, its ability to be used in small, medium, and large applications.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationown data

    The minimum hardware and software requirements were determined to guide potential users and developers based on the performance tests.

    “The minimum hardware and software requirements were determined to guide potential users and developers based on the performance tests.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
42 of 42

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    HEMS solutions have more stringent requirements than general IoT middleware.

    “However, the requirements of HEMS solutions are more stringent.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Massive deployment of energy management systems requires end-user devices to be low cost, meaning devices with low computational capability.

    “In order to guarantee a massive deployment of energy management systems, the end-user devices must be low cost, which means devices with low computational capability.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Low-cost hardware platforms are typically associated with low computational power.

    “However, this lower cost is typically associated to low computational power (i.e., processing, storage and communication), requiring special attention when designing reliable communication, storage and data processing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The operation requested by the performance test requests (receiving the HTTP request, writing to the database, and sending the HTTP response code) is the most costly one.

    “The operation requested by these requests is the most costly one, involving receiving the HTTP request, writing to the database, and sending the HTTP response code.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 5-second interval between requests is a more realistic scenario than the 0.5-second interval.

    “On the other hand, the 5-second interval is considered to be a more realistic scenario.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The independence of services intrinsic to microservices provides greater robustness, performance, and interoperability.

    “Additionally, the independence of the services, intrinsic to the use of microservices, provides greater robustness, performance, and interoperability.”
6 of 6

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. Nagalakshmi, 2017, Design and implementation of Aurdino based smart home energy management system using renewable energy resources, Int. J. ChemTech Res., 10, 696
  2. 2021, JMeter

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Ferreira, L. C. B. C., Borchardt, A. D. R., Cardoso, G. D. S., Mendes Lemes, D. A., Sousa, G. R. D. R. D., Neto, F. B., de Lima, E. R., Fraidenraich, G., Cardieri, P., & Meloni, L. G. P.
Affiliations
  • Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP) (BR)
  • Department of Communications, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Campinas (FEEC), São Paulo, Campinas, Brazil
  • Companhia Paranaense de Energia, Curitiba, Parana, Brazil
  • Department of Hardware Design, Instituto de Pesquisa Eldorado, São Paulo, Campinas, Brazil
ORCID
Venue
IEEE Access
Publisher
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Published
2022
Volume
10
Pages
109663-109676
ISSN
2169-3536 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1109/access.2022.3214229
OpenAlex
W4312365983
Cited by
28
References
31
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 9
FWCI
2.54
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • IEEE Access (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Greater South Information System
Funders
Copel (PD-02866-0508/2019)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › IoT and Edge/Fog Computing
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › IoT-based Smart Home Systems
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Smart Grid Energy Management
Keywords
edge computing, microservices, middleware, home energy management systems, home automation, embedded systems, resource-constrained devices, low-cost hardware, reference architecture, low latency

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