Beam Alignment in mmWave V2X Communications: A Survey

Tan, Jingru; Luan, Tom H.; Guan, Wenbo; Wang, Yuntao; Peng, Haixia; Zhang, Yao; Zhao, Dongmei; Lu, Ning

doi:10.1109/comst.2024.3383093

Cited by 75Millimeter-Wave Propagation and ModelingVehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)Advanced Wireless Communication Technologies

Beam Alignment in mmWave V2X Communications: A Survey

Tan, Jingru, Luan, Tom H., Guan, Wenbo, Wang, Yuntao, Peng, Haixia, Zhang, Yao, Zhao, Dongmei, Lu, Ning·2024·IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials

DOI 10.1109/comst.2024.3383093

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Abstract

The digital transformation within the automotive industry is accelerating towards an era dominated by autonomous vehicles, with vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications being a fundamental enabler for this advancement. As vehicular networks evolve to meet the complex demands of autonomous driving, traditional communication systems encounter limitations in bandwidth and data transfer rates. Millimeter-wave (mmWave) communication emerges as a pivotal solution, offering the extensive bandwidth required for the high data throughput and low latency essential in modern vehicular communications. However, challenges loom, with beam alignment in mmWave V2X becoming a time-consuming process and the mmWave’s blockage effect impeding consistent and reliable vehicular communication links. Therefore, the development of efficient, real-time, and robust beam alignment technology is crucial for mmWave V2X communication. In this paper, we present a comprehensive survey of beam alignment techniques in mmWave V2X communication. We explore various approaches including beam sweeping, angle of arrival (AoA)/angle of direction (AoD) estimation, black-box optimization, and side information. Subsequently, we introduce performance metrics for assessing beam alignment performance and compare the performance of four beam alignment methods under different metrics. Finally, we summarize the future research directions and challenges faced by beam alignment techniques in mmWave V2X communication, offering valuable insights for researchers in this field.

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mmWave is resilient to the Doppler effect due to its system design, including beamforming, larger subcarrier spacing, and short TTIs.
“In addition, mmWave is also known for its resilience to the Doppler effect due to its system design [26], such as the adoption of beamforming, larger subcarrier spacing, and short Transmission Time Intervals (TTIs).”
From Leveraging 3GPP Features and Optimization Techniques for 5G NR-V2X Resource Allocation: A Survey (2025) · cites this paper as [26]

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Deep Transfer Learning for Site-Specific Channel Estimation in Low-Resolution mmWave MIMO
Alves, W., Correa, I., Prelcic, N. G., et al. (2021) · IEEE Wireless Communications Letters · doi:10.1109/lwc.2021.3069199 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Prediction of mmWave/THz Link Blockages Through Meta-Learning and Recurrent Neural Networks
Kalør, A. E., Simeone, O., & Popovski, P. (2021) · IEEE Wireless Communications Letters · doi:10.1109/lwc.2021.3118269 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Position-Attitude Prediction Based Beam Tracking for UAV mmWave Communications
Zhang, J., Xu, W., Gao, H., et al. (2019) · International Conference on Communications · doi:10.1109/icc.2019.8761981 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Channel Estimation for 6G V2X Hybrid Systems Using Multi-Vehicular Learning
Mizmizi, M., Tagliaferri, D., Badini, D., Mazzucco, C., & Spagnolini, U. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3095121 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
V2X Communication over Cellular Networks: Capabilities and Challenges
Kanavos, A., Fragkos, D., & Kaloxylos, A. (2021) · Telecom · doi:10.3390/telecom2010001 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Millimeter-Wave V2X Channels: Propagation Statistics, Beamforming, and Blockage
Anjinappa, C. K., & Güvenç, İ. (2018) · IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference · doi:10.1109/vtcfall.2018.8690733 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
An efficient and low-complexity beam training technique for mmWave communication
Yuan, W., Armour, S. M. D., & Doufexi, A. (2015) · IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC) · doi:10.1109/pimrc.2015.7343314 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
A Directional TDMA Protocol for High Throughput URLLC in mmWave Vehicular Networks
Bahbahani, M. S., Alsusa, E. A., & Hammadi, A. A. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2022.3219771 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Deep Learning on Visual and Location Data for V2I mmWave Beamforming
Reus-Muns, G., Salehi, B., Roy, D., Jian, T., Wang, Z., Dy, J., Ioannidis, S., & Chowdhury, K. R. (2021) · International Conference on Mobility, Sensing and Networking (MSN) · doi:10.1109/msn53354.2021.00087 · Cited by 27 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 9

2015, Technical Feasibility of IMT in Bands Above 6 GHz
2015, Propagation Data and Prediction Methods Required for the Design of Terrestrial Line-of-Sight Systems
2017, Guidelines for evaluation of radio interface technologies for IMT-2020
2018, Study on channel model for frequency spectrum above 6 GHz, v15.0.0
2015, Technical Specification Group Radio Access Network; Study on 3D Channel Model for LTE (Release 12), v12.2.0
2019, Technical Specification Group Radio Access Network; Study on Channel Model for Frequencies From 0.5 to 100 GHz (Release 16), V16.1.0
2014, The 5G Infrastructure Public Private Partnership (5G PPP). 5G Automotive Vision.
2012, IEEE Standard for Information Technology—Telecommunications and Information Exchange Between Systems—Local and Metropolitan Area Networks—Specific Requirements—Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications Amendment 3: Enhancements for Very High Throughput in the 60 GHz Band
Zhang, 2022, Millimeter wave beam tracking based on vehicle environmental situational awareness, J. Signal Process., 38, 457

Sorted by citations

A Tutorial on 5G Positioning
Italiano, L., Tedeschini, B. C., Brambilla, M., Huang, H., Nicoli, M., & Wymeersch, H. (2024) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2024.3449031 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“…provide an overview of the evolution of cellular • We provide a detailed description of the standardized 5G • We conduct a thorough examination of 5G positioning architectures • We carry out extensive 5G positioning simulations in out-door • We discuss the current limitations of 5G positioning by”
Harnessing Multimodal Sensing for Multi-User Beamforming in mmWave Systems
Patel, K., & Heath, R. W. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2024.3475950 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Perspectives and Research Challenges in Wireless Communications Hardware for the Future Internet and Its Applications Services
Arnaoutoglou, D. G., Empliouk, T. M., Kaifas, T. N. F., Zekios, C. L., & Kyriacou, G. A. (2025) · Future Internet · doi:10.3390/fi17060249 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Edge General Intelligence Through World Models, Large Language Models, and Agentic AI: Fundamentals, Solutions, and Challenges
Zhao, C., Liu, G., Zhang, R., Liu, Y., Wang, J., Kang, J., Niyato, D. T., Li, Z., Shen, X., Han, Z., et al. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Cognitive Communications and Networking · doi:10.1109/tccn.2026.3658762 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“3) Beam Alignment and Power Control: In mmWave V2X communications, the optimization objective centers on joint beam alignment and power control to maximize spectral e ﬃ ciency while maintaining low-latency connectivity under strict reliability constraints [144].”
The self supervised multimodal semantic transmission mechanism for complex network environments
Zou, J., Wan, Z., Wang, F., et al. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-15162-x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Leveraging 3GPP Features and Optimization Techniques for 5G NR-V2X Resource Allocation: A Survey
Bin Ali Wael, C., Hadj Dogheche, E., Armi, N., Subekti, A., & Dayoub, I. (2025) · IEEE Open Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems · doi:10.1109/ojits.2025.3584024 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“In addition, mmWave is also known for its resilience to the Doppler effect due to its system design [26], such as the adoption of beamforming, larger subcarrier spacing, and short Transmission Time Intervals (TTIs).”
When Future Communications Shift Toward Narrow Beams: A Forward-Looking Survey on Pointing Errors and Alignment Limits
Ghanbari, M., Dabiri, M. T., Badarneh, O. S., Hasna, M. O., Al-Badarneh, Y. H., AlShawaqfeh, M. K., & Qaraqe, K. A. (2026) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2026.3690915 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The survey in [35] concentrates on beam alignment in mmWave vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communications, categorizing alignment techniques and performance metrics tailored to highly dynamic vehicular environments.”
Combination between internet of vehicles and advanced driver assistance systems: overview and description
Madani, S. E., Motahhir, S., & Ghzizal, A. E. (2024) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-024-20486-3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“The benefits stem from the combination of V2X communication [6] data and ADAS sensor data, which provide the necessary information for better real-time decision-making.”
A Survey on Positioning for mmWave Distributed MIMO Systems: Challenges, Solution Techniques, and Applications
Adnan, M., Silva, A., Krzymien, L., et al. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3638143 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Toward Spectrum-Efficient 6G: Revolutionizing Beamforming With Vision and Deep Learning
Mirza, A. F., Hassan, T. U., Ullah, S. A., et al. (2025) · IEEE Network · doi:10.1109/mnet.2025.3569560 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“However, the limited dataset size may have constrained its performance [7].”
Adaptive hierarchical smoothing strategy and fuzzy logic-based torque vectoring algorithm for comfort and propulsion optimization in over-actuated hybrid electric vehicles
Oubelaid, A., Khosravi, N., Belkhier, Y., et al. (2025) · Results in Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.rineng.2025.106289 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Adaptive Beam Prediction for Enhancing mmWave V2I Communication Performance in Complex Real-World Scenarios
Yang, Q., Liu, K., Chen, L., Zhang, Z., & Zhao, J. (2025) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2025.3579892 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“With the large available bandwidth, the mmWave technology facilitates high communication rates and enhances distance resolution, thus enabling high positioning accuracy [6].”
Assessment of RF Electromagnetic Exposure to Car Driver from Monopole Array Antennas in V2V Communications Considering Thermal Characteristics
Wang, S., & Lu, M. (2025) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s25103247 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Figure 1 shows the V2X communication scenario [3].”
6G-Oriented Joint Optimization of Semantic Compression and Transmission Power for Reliable IoV Emergency Communication
Zhou, Y., Wei, J., Luo, M., He, B., & Chen, J. (2025) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics14244937 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Multi-Modal Sensor Fusion for Proactive Blockage Prediction in mmWave Vehicular Networks
Nazar, A. M., Çelik, A., Selim, M. Y., et al. (2025) · Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers (ACSSC) · doi:10.1109/ieeeconf67917.2025.11443745 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“These disruptions are problematic in fast-changing environments, where traditional network handling mechanisms often react too slowly to prevent communication hinderances [1]–[3].”
A Novel Design of 60-GHz Full-Polarimetric Radar for Miniature Sensor Applications
Huang, T.-M., & Lin, Y. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques · doi:10.1109/tmtt.2024.3523554 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“M ILLIMETER-WAVE (mmW) technologies have significantly expedited the development of various wireless systems [1], [2], [3], [4], [5].”
A ResNet-Aided Two-Stage DoA Estimation Technique for Multiuser SIMO Systems
Inoue, H., Takano, Y., Su, H.-J., et al. (2025) · IEEE VTS Asia Pacific Wireless Communications Symposium (APWCS) · doi:10.1109/apwcs67981.2025.11151915 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Moreover, in vehicle-to-everything (V2X) communication systems [4], time selective fading channels caused by mobilities of terminals should also be considered.”
Sensing-Assisted Communication for mmWave Networks: A Review of Techniques, Applications, and Future Directions
Mahmoud, R., Castanheira, D., Silva, A., et al. (2025) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics14193787 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Extremely Large-Aperture Arrays for V2X Communication, Localization and Sensing
Decarli, N., Giovannetti, C., Guidi, F., Guerra, A., Zanella, A., & Masini, B. M. (2026) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s26051563 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
HONOR: O-RAN-compliant Handover Optimization in Vehicular Networks via Offline RL
Wang, Y., Yang, Y., Ma, M., et al. (2026) · IFIP Networking Conference (IFIP Networking) · doi:10.23919/ifipnetworking70592.2026.11579080 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…with the increased path loss, beamforming is commonly used to concentrate signal power into narrow, directional beams, which unintentionally introduces complex resource coupling, restricting a beam to serving a vehicle (i.e. one-to-one roadside unit (RSU)-vehicle matching) simultaneously [8, 9].”
Self-citation
Cooperative Safety Intelligence Over V2X Networks: A Survey
Zhang, J., Xu, Q., Li, Z., Wu, Y., Xu, C., & Li, K. (2026) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2026.3723946 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“…GHz mmWave radars achieve centimeter-level range resolution and enhanced angular precision through frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) and multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) architectures, while remaining sensitive to mobility-induced beam misalignment in V2X scenarios [41], [53], [54].”
Joint Adaptive OFDM and Reinforcement Learning Design for Autonomous Vehicles: Leveraging Age of Updates
Delamou, M., Naeem, A., Arslan, H., et al. (2025) · IEEE Open Journal of Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/ojvt.2025.3530008 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
An ISAC-Assisted Beam Alignment Design for HAP-Based 6G Flying Ad-Hoc Networks
Kırık, M., Afeef, L., & Arslan, H. (2025) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2025.3586964 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“These include techniques such as beam sweeping, compressed sensing (CS)-based angle of arrival (AoA) / angle of departure (AoD) estimation, and beam tracking [7].”
Vision-Assisted Near-Field Channel Estimation for XL-MIMO Systems
Zhang, Q., Zhou, Z., Liu, Q., & Yang, L. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Cognitive Communications and Networking · doi:10.1109/tccn.2025.3605377 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“In this paradigm, base stations use radar for beam alignment and tracking, enhancing spectral efficiency and conserving in-band resources [21], [22].”
Performance Analysis of IRS-Assisted Multi-Link FSO System Under UAV-Enabled Jamming
Wang, J., Gao, D., Ding, H., et al. (2025) · International Conference on Communications · doi:10.1109/icc52391.2025.11161904 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…respectively; ξ j characterizes the PE faced by jamming ⎡ ⎛ ⎞ ⎤ 2 ω z being the fraction of collected power at the center of the beam footprint [11], ω z = φz is the beamwidth calculated from the divergence angle ( φ ) of the beam and the distance ( z ) traveled by the beam [12]; σ 2 R = 1 .”
Joint Detection and Angle Estimation for Multiple Jammers in Beamspace Massive MIMO
Du, P., Zhang, C., Zhang, C., et al. (2025) · IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference · doi:10.1109/vtc2025-spring65109.2025.11174699 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“We assume an unobstructed direct path between the user or jammer and the BS, which is relevant to scenarios such as mmWave communications for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) [15], [16] and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) networks [17].”
White Paper: Communication Technologies for Intelligent Transportation Systems: From Railways to UAVs and Beyond
Rizkalla, S., & Kliks, A. (2025) · Journal of Telecommunications and Information Technology · doi:10.26636/jtit.2025.cost-ca20120-vt2.2385 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Fuzzy-Enhanced Grey Wolf Optimizer for Hybrid Beamforming in mmWave Vehicular Networks
Dubey, M., Dubey, V. G., & Wang, P. J. (2026) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/jsac.2026.3654881 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Recent advances in mmWave vehicular communication have emphasized adaptive beamforming strategies to maintain link reliability in dynamic environments [1], [3], [5], [9], [27].”
Intelligent On-Demand Service Framework With Bit and Semantic Joint Transmission in V2X Communications
Zhang, J., Yuan, Y., Zhang, H., Lv, S., Xu, X., & Quek, T. Q. S. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2026.3656645 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Adaptive Hybrid Beamforming via Enhanced Genetic Algorithm for mmWave Vehicular Networks
Dubey, M., Dubey, V. G., & Wang, P. J. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2026.3662739 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“These features are crucial for advanced vehicle applications, including autonomous driving, high-resolution sensor data exchange, and immersive information services [2].”
Environment-Aware Proactive Beam Prediction in mmWave V2I via Multi-Modal Prior Mask Map
Zhou, C., & Xu, Y. (2026) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s26082488 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A systematic survey on cybersecurity for electrical vehicle motor powertrain and drives (EV-MP&D)
Sardar, N. B., Surana, P., & Choudhary, G. (2026) · Journal of Cyber Security Technology · doi:10.1080/23742917.2026.2681651 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Intelligent V2X communications in the 6G era: Handover, sustainability and resource allocation for next-generation ITS
Sinha, S., Singh, M., Chowdhury, A. R., Venkatesan, R., Rajamani, V., Udayakumar, A., & Selvaprabhu, P. (2026) · Physical Communication · doi:10.1016/j.phycom.2026.103232 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A compact analog beamforming receiver for 8-element by 8-beam massive multi-user MIMO in 65 nm CMOS
Wang, C., Li, Y., Li, Z., et al. (2025) · Microelectronics Journal · doi:10.1016/j.mejo.2025.106747 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citation
Optimal Handover in Beamforming-Enabled Multi-Vehicle Networks Supported by Open RAN
Wang, Y., Fitzek, F. H. P., & Nguyen, G. T. K. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Network Softwarization (NetSoft) · doi:10.1109/netsoft64993.2025.11080620 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Recent advances in beamforming have led to a renewed surge of research on handover in vehicular networks [6].”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Group Selection Beamforming for RIS-Aided V2X Communication Systems
Wang, C., & Xu, Y. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Communication Technology (ICCT) · doi:10.1109/icct62411.2024.10946399
“At the same time, the demand for radio spectrum resources is increasing [1]–[3].”
Advancing Passive Localization via beamsteering in Near-Field ISAC Systems
Kianoush, S., Scazzoli, D., Savazzi, S., et al. (2025) · IEEE Statistical Signal Processing Workshop (SSP) · doi:10.1109/ssp64130.2025.11073390
“Within this framework, beam steering and spatial beam selection are key features to real-time integrated localization and communication at millimeter-wave (mmWave) frequencies [3], [4].”
A novel distributed architecture incorporating deep learning and biased selection for vehicular communication mmWaves beamforming
Subramanian, A., & Oliveira, A. M. (2025) · Vehicular Communications · doi:10.1016/j.vehcom.2025.100966
CovertAuth: Joint Covert Communication and Authentication in mmWave Systems
Teng, Y., Zhang, P., Han, K., et al. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Networking · doi:10.1109/ton.2025.3624385
“B ENEFIT from the abundant spectrum resources and massive antenna arrays, millimeter-wave (mmWave) communication can exploit the highly directional beamforming technology to acquire ultra-high data transmission rates and extremely low latency [1].”
A Robust Link Maintenance Algorithm for Directional UAV Networks Based on Breakage Probability Prediction
Song, Y., Wang, S., Song, Z., et al. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2025.3627301
Model-Driven Deep Learning for OTFS Detection With Phase Noise in V2X Communications
Qiu, D., Zhu, H., Luo, J., et al. (2026) · IEEE Communications Letters · doi:10.1109/lcomm.2026.3651608
“The millimeter-wave (mmWave) band has emerged as an effective solution for V2X owing to the ability to support the required high data rates [6].”
Hybrid Beamforming for mmWave V2X Using Simulated Annealing with Local Search
Dubey, M., Wang, P. J., & Dubey, V. G. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Emerging Trends in Engineering and Computing (ETECOM) · doi:10.1109/etecom66111.2025.11319075
“Millimeter-wave (mmWave) communication offers high-capacity, low-latency links critical for enabling real-time applications in next-generation intelligent transportation systems [1].”
Performance Improvement of Data Broadcasting for mmWave-based VANETs
Dubey, M., Lee, J.-Y., & Wang, P. J. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Communication, Networks and Satellite (COMNETSAT) · doi:10.1109/comnetsat68601.2025.11324601
“These networks require ultra-reliable, low-latency, and high-bandwidth communication to support both safety-critical and infotainment applications [2].”
Joint Pattern Search and Hill-Climbing Scheme for Hybrid Beamforming in mmWave V2X Networks
Dubey, M., Wang, P. J., & Dubey, V. G. (2025) · IEEE International Conference on Communication, Networks and Satellite (COMNETSAT) · doi:10.1109/comnetsat68601.2025.11324792
“Millimeter wave (mmWave) communication enables ultra-high data rates, low latency, and increased network capacity for next-generation intelligent transportation systems [1].”
Design and Evaluation of a Beam Tracking Technique Applicable to Tactical Platooning Scenarios
Oh, S., Woo, J., & Chae, J. W. (2026) · Journal of the Korea Institute of Military Science and Technology · doi:10.9766/kimst.2026.29.1.026
“해당 기술은 다수의 안테나 를 규칙 혹은 비규칙적으로 배열하여 , 예리한 전자기 파 빔을 목표 방향으로 형성함으로써 전력과 신호대 잡음비 (Signal-to-Noise Ratio, SNR) 를 개선하고 , 결과적 으로 데이터 전송률을 향상시킬 수 있다 [9,10] .”
A Blind Fixed Multi-Beam GNSS Anti-Jamming Method Based on Space-Frequency Domain
Tang, J., Jia, L., Huang, Z., et al. (2025) · International Conference on Computer Science, Electronic Information Engineering and Intelligent Control Technology (CEI) · doi:10.1109/cei66465.2025.11398759
“In contrast, the PI and MMSE criteria, due to the lack of explicit constraints on the phase response, struggle to meet the strict phase consistency requirements of high-precision applications [13].”
MSET: Multimodal Semantic-Enhanced Real-World Beam Prediction via Temporal Modeling With Visual Foundation Models
Liu, F., Li, X., Gao, W., Xiong, J., Niu, G., & Chen, C. S. (2026) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2026.3669716
“map updates, and uncrewed aerial vehicles (UAVs) networking, is accelerating the evolution of mobile networks toward higher frequency bands, notably the millimeter-wave (mmWave) and subterahertz (sub-THz) spectra [1], [2].”
Comparative Analysis of Antenna Patterns for mmWave V2V Links under Beam Misalignment
Pu, Y., Wang, W., Dong, D., et al. (2026) · International Conference on Neural Networks, Information and Communication Engineering (NNICE) · doi:10.1109/nnice68970.2026.11466171
“Misalignment is therefore a significant impairment, causing the signal to fall into low-gain areas of the antenna pattern and reducing link margin and reliability [5].”
Robust Beamforming Optimization and Transmission Performance Analysis for Dynamic Vehicle Meeting Scenarios
Pu, Y., Wang, W., Dong, D., et al. (2026) · International Conference on Communications, Information System and Computer Engineering (CISCE) · doi:10.1109/cisce69494.2026.11504740
“While these bands offer extensive bandwidth, their significant propagation challenges make high gain directional beamforming necessary to ensure robust communication links [3].”
Poll-Encode-Control: A Reliability-Aware Framework for UAV-Assisted Agricultural IoT Data Collection
Tan, J., Luan, T. H., Guan, W., et al. (2026) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2026.3698491
“UAV-assisted collection also enables faster access to ﬁeld measurements, reduces manual labor, and supports more responsive agronomic decisions [6].”
Self-citation
mmAlert: A Simultaneous Device Localization and Target Tracking System via Cooperative Passive Sensing
Yu, C., Lv, B., Chen, C., Zhang, J., & Wang, R. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/twc.2026.3698942
“However, the short wavelength of mmWave signals also brings inherent disadvantages, such as severe signal attenuation, susceptibility to obstacles, and frequent beam alignment [3], [4], [5].”
Movable antenna-enabled near-field wideband transmission for 6G V2X networks
Zhang, T., Jiang, R., Dai, H., et al. (2026) · Physical Communication · doi:10.1016/j.phycom.2026.103215
When Drone-Vehicle Networks Meets mmWave Communications: Current Status, Challenges, and Future Research Directions
Liu, Y., Wang, H., Xie, Y., et al. (2026) · IEEE Wireless Communications · doi:10.1109/mwc.2026.3665474
“…mmWave communication has emerged as a promising solution to meet the stringent bandwidth and latency requirements of drone-vehicle networks [2]. mmWave offersmulti-gigabit per second data rates and ultra-low latency, making it well-suited for real-time sharing of high-volume sensor data…”
Look Once, Beam Twice: Camera-Primed Real-Time Double-Directional mmWave Beam Management for Vehicular Connectivity
Biswas, A., Pramanik, A., Ekici, E., et al. (2026) · IEEE International Conference on Sensing, Communication, and Networking (SECON) · doi:10.1109/secon68281.2026.11579150
“To meet stringent V2X timing and reliability requirements, prior work has focused on reducing beam alignment latency using onboard sensors and end-to-end learning models [7]; however, these approaches often fail to generalize across environments and mobility conditions.”
Multiagent DRL Using Prioritized Experience Replay and Dynamic Variance Noise for Task Offloading and Power Manipulation in VEC
Li, Z., Zhang, Q., Zhang, Z. S., et al. (2026) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2026.3710561
“…to the attractive available bandwidth, satisfactory transmission rate, and expected transmission latency, which make mmWave ideal for the high-speed data interaction between vehicles and RSUs such as real-time environment sensing, high-deﬁnition video streaming, and vehicle formation control [4].”
Self-citation
Sensing-Assisted Beam Prediction for mmWave UAV Communications in 6G Networks
Halili, R., Bajraktari, D., Ferekh, K., et al. (2026) · doi:10.1109/ict70370.2026.11594728
“Hierarchical beam search methods progressively narrow the search space [10], [12], while beam tracking approaches exploit temporal channel correlation [12], [14], [15].”
GWO-Based 3D Hybrid Beamforming for Reliable mmWave Vehicular Communications
Dubey, M., Wang, P. J., & Dubey, V. G. (2026) · IEEE International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Communication Networks (CICN) · doi:10.1109/cicn70047.2026.11594333
“However, mmWave signals suffer from high path loss, blockage sensitivity, and limited diffraction, which creates challenges for reliable transmission in dynamic vehicular settings [2].”
Diffusion-Based Generative Priors for Efficient Beam Alignment in Directional Networks
Othman, E. F., Bariah, L., & Debbah, M. A. (2026) · IEEE International Conference on Communications workshops · doi:10.1109/iccworkshops63917.2026.11586354
“Surveys of mmWave and THz beam management [9], [12] highlight this transition toward data-driven beam training and emphasize the continued difﬁculty of maintaining reliability under non-line-of-sight (NLOS) and geometrically ambiguous conditions.”
AI-Driven PSO-Optimized Hybrid Beamforming for Robust mmWave V2X Communications
Dubey, M., & Wang, P. J. (2026) · IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Electromagnetics Antennas and Propagation · doi:10.1109/jsteap.2026.3713914
“Despite its potential, mmWave vehicular-to-everything (V2X) communication is highly sensitive to mobility-induced impairments [2].”
Dc-bias-free-at-the-electrode 18x PolM photonic mm-wave generation for radio-over-fiber links with distribution-level quality evaluation
Métwalli, A., Elhaj-Abdou, M. E. M., & Badawi, W. K. (2026) · Optical and Quantum Electronics · doi:10.1007/s11082-026-09024-7
Synergistic Authentication in Beam Alignment for Secure mmWave Communications
Teng, Y., Zhang, P., Zhao, S., et al. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing · doi:10.1109/tdsc.2026.3714802
Grouping-Based and Position-Based Phase Optimization for RIS-Assisted Millimeter-Wave Vehicular Communications
Zong-liang, X., Yu, G., & Luo, Y. (2026) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s26154862
“Millimeter-wave signals operate in high-frequency bands and have short wavelengths, leading to severe path loss and penetration loss [6].”
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Authors: Tan, J., Luan, T. H., Guan, W., Wang, Y., Peng, H., Zhang, Y., Zhao, D., & Lu, N.
Affiliations: Xidian University (CN)
Xi'an Jiaotong University (CN)
Northwestern Polytechnical University (CN)
McMaster University (CA)
Queen's University (CA)
ORCID: Tan, Jingru
Luan, Tom H.
Guan, Wenbo
Wang, Yuntao
Peng, Haixia
Zhang, Yao
Zhao, Dongmei
Lu, Ning
Venue: IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials
Publisher: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Published: 2024
Volume: 26
Issue: 3
Pages: 1676-1709
ISSN: 1553-877X (ISSN-L)
2373-745X
DOI: 10.1109/comst.2024.3383093
OpenAlex: W4393305249
Semantic Scholar: 685fef93f5ae0958a451d2fb0957afbc20d48c85
Cited by: 75
References: 245
Citations by year: 2026: 42 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 4
FWCI: 7.74
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplorehelp/downloads/license-information/IEEE.html (vor)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-029 (stm-asf)
doi.org/10.15223/policy-037 (stm-asf)
Locations: IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials (publishedVersion)
Funders: Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (YJSJ24010)
National Natural Science Foundation of China (62301411, GYKP044, 62171352)
Qin Chuangyuan High-Level Innovation and Entrepreneurship Talents Introduction Program (QCYRCXM-2022-341)
NSFC (62302387)
Postdoctoral Innovative Talent Support Program of China (BX20230282)
China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2023M732820)
Shaanxi Province Postdoctoral Science Foundation (2023BSHTBZZ07)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Millimeter-Wave Propagation and Modeling
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advanced Wireless Communication Technologies
Keywords: beam alignment, millimeter-wave communication, vehicle-to-everything communication, vehicular networks, autonomous vehicles, beam sweeping, angle of arrival estimation, black-box optimization, side information, blockage, performance indicators

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Beam Alignment in mmWave V2X Communications: A Survey

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