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Anticipatory robot control for efficient human-robot collaboration
Abstract
Efficient collaboration requires collaborators to monitor the behaviors of their partners, make inferences about their task intent, and plan their own actions accordingly. To work seamlessly and efficiently with their human counterparts, robots must similarly rely on predictions of their users' intent in planning their actions. In this paper, we present an anticipatory control method that enables robots to proactively perform task actions based on anticipated actions of their human partners. We implemented this method into a robot system that monitored its user's gaze, predicted his or her task intent based on observed gaze patterns, and performed anticipatory task actions according to its predictions. Results from a human-robot interaction experiment showed that anticipatory control enabled the robot to respond to user requests and complete the task faster-2.5 seconds on average and up to 3.4 seconds-compared to a robot using a reactive control method that did not anticipate user intent. Our findings highlight the promise of performing anticipatory actions for achieving efficient human-robot teamwork.
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“Prior research in the domain of human-robot collaboration has demonstrated how a robot can anticipate its human collaborator's task needs based on the observation of the collaborator's eye gaze and provide anticipatory robot assistance [29].”
From Understanding User Reliance on AI in Assisted Decision-Making (2022) · cites this paper as [29]
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“Gaze tracking has long been considered as an important research topic, as it has various promising real-world applications, such as gaze-based interfaces [5, 20], foveated rendering in virtual reality [19], behavioral analysis [11] and human-robot interaction [12].”
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A Review of Human–Machine Cooperation in the Robotics Domain
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“For example, user gaze patterns are studied to understand human control behavior for shared manipulation [3] and to perform anticipatory actions [14].”
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“The development of anticipatory behaviors has been extensively investigated in the literature, and several results have highlighted the corresponding benefits [22], [23].”
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Human-Centered Collaborative Robots With Deep Reinforcement Learning
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“This ability finds applications in areas such as cooperative robotics [1], [2], auto-mobile safety [3], elderly care [4], among many others [5].”
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“Prior research in the domain of human-robot collaboration has demonstrated how a robot can anticipate its human collaborator’s task needs based on the observation of the collaborator’s eye gaze and provide anticipatory robot assistance [29].”
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“perform anticipatory actions [71]; utilizing gestures for object inference in interactions [156]; and using motion patterns for planning”
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“Gaze information enables the establishment of joint attention between the human and robot partner, the recognition of human behavior [19] and the execution of anticipatory actions [20].”
BackgroundGaze-Based Intention Estimation: Principles, Methodologies, and Applications in HRI
Belardinelli, A. (2024) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3656376 · Cited by 63
“…localize the point of regard (POR) in 3D, and specific methods have been proposed for that, often relying on fiducial markers [e.g., Haji Fathaliyan et al. 2018; Huang and Mutlu 2016; Takahashi et al. 2018] but new solutions are trying to do without such aides [Liu et al. 2020; Weber et al. 2018].”
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Weidemann, C., Mandischer, N., van Kerkom, F., Corves, B. J., Hüsing, M., Kraus, T., & Garus, C. (2023) · Robotics · doi:10.3390/robotics12030084 · Cited by 64
User-Adaptive Interaction in Social Robots: A Survey Focusing on Non-physical Interaction
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Combining gaze and AI planning for online human intention recognition
Singh, R., Miller, T., Newn, J., Velloso, E., Vetere, F., & Sonenberg, L. (2020) · Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.artint.2020.103275 · Cited by 63
Deep learning-based human action recognition to leverage context awareness in collaborative assembly
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Lin, C. J., Wang, K., Tadesse, A. A., & Woldegiorgis, B. H. (2021) · Journal of Manufacturing Systems · doi:10.1016/j.jmsy.2021.12.001 · Cited by 53
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“patterns are often used to achieve a collaborative human– robot interaction [55], these also play a fundamental role during non-interactive tasks.”
MethodMoGaze: A Dataset of Full-Body Motions that Includes Workspace Geometry and Eye-Gaze
Kratzer, P., Bihlmaier, S., Midlagajni, N. B., Prakash, R., Toussaint, M., & Mainprice, J. (2020) · IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters · doi:10.1109/lra.2020.3043167 · Cited by 47
“Using data from eye tracking, their system uses early prediction to make the robot proactively support the human [17].”
MethodObject Transfer Point Estimation for Fluent Human-Robot Handovers
Nemlekar, H., Dutia, D., & Li, Z. (2019) · Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/icra.2019.8794008 · Cited by 45
“, gaze or body gestures [16]), inferring the implicit intent encoded in human motion can be more efficient and less intrusive, as it minimizes end user effort for maintaining explicit or even exaggerated communication.”
BackgroundHuman Factors Considerations for Enabling Functional Use of Exosystems in Operational Environments
Stirling, L., Siu, H. C., Jones, E. M., & Duda, K. (2018) · IEEE Systems Journal · doi:10.1109/jsyst.2018.2821689 · Cited by 44
“In human–robot teams, studies find that the ability to anticipate human behavior can improve the safety and fluency between a human and robot (e.g., [61]–[63]).”
BackgroundTowards High Performance Low Complexity Calibration in Appearance Based Gaze Estimation
Chen, Z., & Shi, B. E. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2022.3148386 · Cited by 43
“EYE gaze has been used successfully in many promising applications, such as human-computer interfaces [1], [2], human-robot interaction [3], health care [4], virtual reality [5], [6] and social behavioral analysis [7], [8].”
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A network analytic approach to gaze coordination during a collaborative task
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“In particular, such models will aid in the development of anticipatory rather than reactive control mechanisms for agent behavior, improving coordination in collaborative contexts (Hayashi, 2016; Huang & Mutlu, 2016; Olsen et al., 2016).”
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Toward Active Physical Human–Robot Interaction: Quantifying the Human State During Interactions
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Gaze-Based Intention Estimation for Shared Autonomy in Pick-and-Place Tasks
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“…makes it difficult to compare our system to other approaches presented in the literature, since often either natural eye-hand coordination (Haji Fathaliyan et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020) or no eye-hand coordination at all (Huang and Mutlu, 2016) is used for intention recognition (see section 2).”
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Predicting Intention Through Eye Gaze Patterns
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“[30] devised an anticipatory control method to assist human partners based on observed gaze patterns.”
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“This can help in analyzing complex interaction behavior of humans: it bears the potential to facilitate novel real-time adaptive humancomputer interaction [7,17], and to boost the efficiency in research based on eye tracking by automating the time-consuming and expensive data annotation process [12].”
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Grigore, E. C., Roncone, A., Mangin, O., & Scassellati, B. M. (2018) · IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) · doi:10.1109/iros.2018.8593716 · Cited by 33
A scoping review of gaze and eye tracking-based control methods for assistive robotic arms
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Construction Robot Teleoperation Safeguard Based on Real-Time Human Hand Motion Prediction
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Gaze Tracking Using an Unmodified Web Camera and Convolutional Neural Network
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A neural integrator model for planning and value-based decision making of a robotics assistant
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“hold out the object that the operator needs next has a major impact on user satisfaction [30, 32, 46].”
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Qiu, S., Liu, H., Zhang, Z., Zhu, Y., & Zhu, S. C. (2020) · IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) · doi:10.1109/iros45743.2020.9340781 · Cited by 28
“From a robot’s angle, it models humans by inferring goals [36], [37], tracking mental states [38], [39], predicting actions [40], and recognizing intention and attention [41], [42].”
BackgroundVisual Search Target Inference in Natural Interaction Settings with Machine Learning
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“The technique is a re-implementation of an existing technique that prior work has proposed to request assistance from a robot [2] and to command it [18], serving as a baseline for comparisons.”
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“…robots have obtained encouraging results in several research fields such as educational robotics (Budiharto et al., 2017), collaborative robotics (Huang and Mutlu, 2016; Gustavsson et al., 2017), surgical robotics (Zinchenko et al., 2017), assistive robotics (Wu et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2018),…”
BackgroundEye Gaze for Assistive Manipulation
Aronson, R. M., & Admoni, H. (2020) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1145/3371382.3377434 · Cited by 21
“Moreover, these observations have been used to build collaborative systems that monitor gaze behavior to determine people’s intentions during food serving [10] or handover [9] tasks.”
BackgroundOptimizing the Timing of Intelligent Suggestion in Virtual Reality
Yu, D., Desai, R., Zhang, T., Benko, H., Jonker, T. R., & Gupta, A. (2022) · ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST) · doi:10.1145/3526113.3545632 · Cited by 22
“Much existing research focuses onbuildingmodels that appropriate gaze traces or scanpaths to predict selection intentions [21, 37, 39, 59, 61, 72].”
BackgroundIVO Robot: A New Social Robot for Human-Robot Collaboration
Laplaza, J., Rodríguez-Linares, N., Domínguez-Vidal, J. E., Herrero, F., Hernandez, S., Lopez, A., Sanfeliu, A., & Garrell, A. (2022) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1109/hri53351.2022.9889458 · Cited by 22
“5 s in advance in line with the work done by Huang et al. [10].”
ResultFostering short-term human anticipatory behavior in human-robot collaboration
Psarakis, L., Nathanael, D., & Marmaras, N. (2021) · International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2021.103241 · Cited by 27
What is Proactive Human-Robot Interaction? - A Review of a Progressive Field and Its Definitions
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Learning Semantics of Gestural Instructions for Human-Robot Collaboration
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“Huang and Mutlu (2016) presented an anticipatory control method that enables the robot to proactively perform a pick-and-place task based on anticipated actions of their human partners.”
BackgroundDetecting errors in pick and place procedures
Bovo, R., Binetti, N., Brumby, D. P., & Julier, S. (2020) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI) · doi:10.1145/3377325.3377497 · Cited by 21
“They can be used to identify a user’s mental states (hesitation, confusion, clarity) [11] and intention (i.”
BackgroundERA: Expert Retrieval and Assembly for Early Action Prediction
Foo, L. G., Li, T., Rahmani, H., Ke, Q., & Liu, J. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-19830-4_38 · Cited by 20
Multi-modal Intention Prediction with Probabilistic Movement Primitives
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“Others to improve the robot behavior by ensuring the safety of the interaction [24]; by anticipating the action of their partner [13]; or by adapting robot actions according to the intention of their partner [17].”
BackgroundSpiking Neural Networks for early prediction in human–robot collaboration
Zhou, T., & Wachs, J. P. (2019) · The International Journal of Robotics Research · doi:10.1177/0278364919872252 · Cited by 20
“Gaze was also used to predict human intentions for anticipatory motion planning in a robotic servant (Huang and Mutlu, 2016).”
MethodZhu, Z., Zhang, D., Chi, C., Li, M., & Lee, D.-J. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Cognitive and Developmental Systems · doi:10.1109/tcds.2022.3210219 · Cited by 19
Preliminary Work on a Virtual Reality Interface for the Guidance of Underwater Robots
de la Cruz, M., Casañ, G. A., Sanz, P. J., & Marín, R. (2020) · Robotics · doi:10.3390/robotics9040081 · Cited by 18
“Although there are systems which try to use AI solutions, in which the robot is partially autonomous from the human operator’s instructions which can reduce the impact of his/her decisions [13], or systems in which there is anticipation of the user actions [14], we consider that most problems can be solved using bette…”
MethodBalancing Efficiency and Comfort in Robot-Assisted Bite Transfer
Belkhale, S., Gordon, E. K., Chen, Y., Srinivasa, S. S., Bhattacharjee, T., & Sadigh, D. (2022) · Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/icra46639.2022.9812332 · Cited by 17
Inferring Goals with Gaze during Teleoperated Manipulation
Aronson, R. M., Almutlak, N., & Admoni, H. (2021) · IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) · doi:10.1109/iros51168.2021.9636551 · Cited by 17
“such as teleoperating a robot [6], generating robot demonstrations [24], or requesting objects from a robot server [8].”
BackgroundHierarchical Intention Tracking for Robust Human-Robot Collaboration in Industrial Assembly Tasks
Huang, Z., Mun, Y.-J., Li, X., Xie, Y., Zhong, N., Liang, W., Geng, J., Chen, T., & Driggs-Campbell, K. (2023) · Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/icra48891.2023.10160515 · Cited by 17
“To estimate human intention, various types of observation on human behavior are used as input, including human trajectories [1], [25], [26], gesture [16], [27], gaze [28], speech [29], facial expressions [30], and force-torque measurements [8], [24].”
BackgroundScenario-Based Programming of Voice-Controlled Medical Robotic Systems
Rogowski, A. (2022) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22239520 · Cited by 17
“There are also works dealing with the combination of voice and haptic control [22] or voice and operator’s gaze monitoring [23].”
BackgroundTransfer Learning of Human Preferences for Proactive Robot Assistance in Assembly Tasks
Nemlekar, H., Dhanaraj, N., Guan, A., Gupta, S. K., & Nikolaidis, S. (2023) · ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) · doi:10.1145/3568162.3576965 · Cited by 17
Domínguez-Vidal, J. E., Rodríguez, N., & Sanfeliu, A. (2024) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-024-01103-7 · Cited by 17
Cui, Y., Poon, J., Miró, J. V., Yamazaki, K., Sugimoto, K., & Matsubara, T. (2018) · Autonomous Robots · doi:10.1007/s10514-018-9798-2 · Cited by 17
“Examples of partner anticipation include the work by Huang and Mutlu (2016), using Support Vector Machines to predict eye gaze and treat it as the human partner’s focus of attention, which formed the basis for subsequent robot activity.”
MethodPerson-Specific Gaze Estimation from Low-Quality Webcam Images
Ansari, M. F., Kasprowski, P., & Peer, P. (2023) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s23084138 · Cited by 16
“Gaze estimation is a significant research problem due to its various applications in real life, including human–computer interactions [1], behavioral analysis [2], virtual reality [3,4], and health care [5].”
BackgroundMondellini, M., Prajod, P., Nicora, M. L., Chiappini, M., Micheletti, E., Storm, F. A., Vertechy, R., André, E., & Malosio, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1245857 · Cited by 16
Physical symbol grounding and instance learning through demonstration and eye tracking
Penkov, S., Bordallo, A., & Ramamoorthy, S. (2017) · Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/icra.2017.7989697 · Cited by 16
“The predominant use of eye tracking in the field of robotics is in human-robot interaction settings, where gaze information enables the recognition of human behaviour [19] and the execution of anticipatory actions [20].”
BackgroundSeeming autonomy, technology and the uncanny valley
Gahrn-Andersen, R. (2020) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-020-01040-9 · Cited by 16
Gaze-Speech Coordination Influences the Persuasiveness of Human-Robot Dialog in the Wild
Fischer, K., Langedijk, R. M., Nissen, L. D., Ramírez, E. R., & Palinko, O. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-62056-1_14 · Cited by 16
“[5] find that a robot that responds quickly to the user’s need for assistance and then moves quickly to fulfill its task is perceived as more polite than a robot that takes more time to respond.”
BackgroundPredicting short-term next-active-object through visual attention and hand position
Jiang, J., Nan, Z., Chen, H., Chen, S., & Zheng, N. (2020) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2020.12.069 · Cited by 15
Preemptive Motion Planning for Human-to-Robot Indirect Placement Handovers
Choi, A., Jawed, M. K., & Joo, J. (2022) · Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/icra46639.2022.9811558 · Cited by 15
“Similar to [33], we use a set of weights where (cid:15) is a decay factor.”
BackgroundMethodSocial Moments: A Perspective on Interaction for Social Robotics
Durantin, G., Heath, S., & Wiles, J. (2017) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2017.00024 · Cited by 15
Correia, F., Melo, F. S., & Paiva, A. (2022) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12634 · Cited by 20
Visual Search Target Inference Using Bag of Deep Visual Words
Stauden, S., Barz, M., & Sonntag, D. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-00111-7_25 · Cited by 14
“Inferring visual search targets helps to construct and improve intelligent user interfaces in many fields, e.g., robotics [9] or similar to examples in [18].”
BackgroundInvoking Principles of Groupware to Develop and Evaluate Present and Future Human-Agent Teams
Flathmann, C., Schelble, B. G., Tubre, B., McNeese, N. J., & Rodeghero, P. (2020) · International Conference on Human-Agent Interaction (HAI) · doi:10.1145/3406499.3415072 · Cited by 14
“can be seen as a type of HAT, their autonomous agents exist in a cyber-physcial domain allowing for different physical interactions not directly comparable to purely cyber agents [31].”
BackgroundHuman Movement Direction Classification using Virtual Reality and Eye Tracking
Pettersson, J., & Falkman, P. (2020) · Procedia Manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.promfg.2020.10.015 · Cited by 15
“Other ways are to monitor the gaze o predict an upcoming decision [13] or analyze bioelectric signals, such as electromyography, to predict human motion [5].”
BackgroundGaze-based Attention Recognition for Human-Robot Collaboration
Prajod, P., Nicora, M. L., Malosio, M., & André, E. (2023) · International Conference on PErvasive Technologies Related to Assistive Environments (PETRA) · doi:10.1145/3594806.3594819 · Cited by 14
Pettersson, J., & Falkman, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Neurorobotics · doi:10.3389/fnbot.2023.1157957 · Cited by 15
Turn-Taking Prediction for Human–Robot Collaborative Assembly Considering Human Uncertainty
Xu, W., Feng, S., Yao, B., Ji, Z., & Liu, Z. (2023) · Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering · doi:10.1115/1.4063231 · Cited by 13
Rogowski, A., Bieliszczuk, K., & Rapcewicz, J. (2020) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s20247287 · Cited by 13
“In order to increase effectiveness of speech-based human-robot teamwork, Huang and Mutlu developed anticipatory robot control system based on user’s gaze monitoring [25].”
BackgroundStargazer: An Interactive Camera Robot for Capturing How-To Videos Based on Subtle Instructor Cues
Li, J., Sousa, M., Mahadevan, K., Wang, B. K., Aoyagui, P. A., Yu, N., Yang, A., Balakrishnan, R., Tang, A., & Grossman, T. (2023) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3580896 · Cited by 17
“Tracking the human’s gaze enables anticipatory robot planning and execution of actions [2, 4, 5, 25, 40], or can be used to prompt robot takeover when it detects user hesitation [47].”
BackgroundUnsupervised Outlier Detection in Appearance-Based Gaze Estimation
Chen, Z., Deng, D., Pi, J., & Shi, B. E. (2019) · IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision Workshops · doi:10.1109/iccvw.2019.00139 · Cited by 14
“Human gaze has been recognized as an important cue for inferring people’s intent in many applications, such as human-computer interfaces [4, 25, 29], human-robot interaction [18], virtual reality [26, 28], social behavioral analysis [16], long-range tracking [36] and health care [12].”
BackgroundTwo-Stage Clustering of Human Preferences for Action Prediction in Assembly Tasks
Nemlekar, H., Modi, J., Gupta, S. K., & Nikolaidis, S. (2021) · Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/icra48506.2021.9561649 · Cited by 14
“Human preferences for robot actions can also be measured from EEG signals [15], or from a short window of human arm motion [16]–[18] or gaze pattern [19].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Huang, C.-M., & Mutlu, B.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Venue
- 2016 11th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI)
- Publisher
- IEEE
- Published
- 2016-03
- Pages
- 83-90
- OpenAlex
- W4229726131
- Cited by
- 227
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 27 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 24 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 28.71
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Control and Systems Engineering › Robot Manipulation and Learning
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Speech and dialogue systems
- Keywords
- anticipatory control, human-robot collaboration, gaze prediction, human-robot interaction, task completion time
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