Robust Fruit Counting: Combining Deep Learning, Tracking, and Structure from Motion
Open accessAbstract
We present a novel fruit counting pipeline that combines deep segmentation, frame to frame tracking, and 3D localization to accurately count visible fruits across a sequence of images. Our pipeline works on image streams from a monocular camera, both in natural light, as well as with controlled illumination at night. We first train a Fully Convolutional Network (FCN) and segment video frame images into fruit and non-fruit pixels. We then track fruits across frames using the Hungarian Algorithm where the objective cost is determined from a Kalman Filter corrected Kanade-Lucas-Tomasi (KLT) Tracker. In order to correct the estimated count from tracking process, we combine tracking results with a Structure from Motion (SfM) algorithm to calculate relative 3D locations and size estimates to reject outliers and double counted fruit tracks. We evaluate our algorithm by comparing with ground-truth human-annotated visual counts. Our results demonstrate that our pipeline is able to accurately and reliably count fruits across image sequences, and the correction step can significantly improve the counting accuracy and robustness. Although discussed in the context of fruit counting, our work can extend to detection, tracking, and counting of a variety of other stationary features of interest such as leaf-spots, wilt, and blossom.
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Crop counting and yield estimation is an important topic of precision agriculture.
“For example, crop counting and yield estimation is an important topic of precision agriculture [202], [141].”
From Empowering things with intelligence: a survey of the progress, challenges, and opportunities in artificial intelligence of things (2021) · cites this paper as [141]
A detection-tracking-counting based method is proposed to reject outliers and double-counted fruits.
“To address this issue, a detection-tracking-counting based method is proposed [141], which can reject outliers and double-counted fruits.”
From Empowering things with intelligence: a survey of the progress, challenges, and opportunities in artificial intelligence of things (2021) · cites this paper as [141]
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Zhang, L., Hao, Q., Mao, Y., Su, J., & Cao, J. (2023) · Agriculture · doi:10.3390/agriculture13061117 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Tracking and Counting Method for Tomato Fruits Scouting Robot in Greenhouse
Dai, G., Hu, L., Wang, P., & Rong, J. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-13844-7_6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Survey of Deep Learning-Based Methods for FMCW Radar Odometry and Ego-Localization
Brune, M., Meisen, T., & Pomp, A. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app14062267 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Few-Shot Fruit Segmentation via Transfer Learning
James, J. A., Manching, H. C., Hulse‐Kemp, A. M., & Beksi, W. J. (2024) · Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/icra57147.2024.10610003 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cossio-Montefinale, L., Quiñinao, C., & Verschae, R. (2025) · Computers and Electronics in Agriculture · doi:10.1016/j.compag.2025.110334 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Deep Learning with Data Augmentation for Fruit Counting
Pawara, P., Boshchenko, A., Schomaker, L., & Wiering, M. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-61401-0_20 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Cross-region building counting in satellite imagery using counting consistency
Zakria, M., Rawal, H., Sultani, W., & Ali, M. (2023) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-023-08923-0 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
A Moving Target Tracking System of Quadrotors with Visual-Inertial Localization
Lin, Z., Xu, W., & Wang, W. (2023) · Proceedings - IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/icra48891.2023.10161323 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rodríguez-Álvarez, J. L., García-Alcaráz, J. L., Vidal, R. P. I., Cuevas-Jacquez, R. A., & Díaz-Reza, J. R. (2024) · Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems · doi:10.1016/j.chemolab.2024.105064 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Deep Learning Solutions for Agricultural and Farming Activities
Karegowda, A. G., Devika, G., & Geetha, M. (2020) · Advances in computational intelligence and robotics book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-2108-3.ch011 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Yield Estimation using Deep Learning for Precision Agriculture
Osman, Y., Dennis, R., & Elgazzar, K. (2021) · IEEE World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT) · doi:10.1109/wf-iot51360.2021.9595143 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Tracking and Counting Apples in Orchards Under Intermittent Occlusions and Low Frame Rates
Matos, G. P., Santiago, C., Costeira, J. P., Saldanha, R. L., & Morgado, E. M. (2024) · IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW) · doi:10.1109/cvprw63382.2024.00550 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Detection and counting of overlapped apples based on convolutional neural networks
Gao, M., Ma, S., Zhang, Y., & Xue, Y. (2022) · Journal of Intelligent & Fuzzy Systems · doi:10.3233/jifs-213072 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
PheMuT: A phenology-informed, multi-modal time-series model for strawberry yield forecasting
Huang, Z., Lee, W. S., Ampatzidis, Y. G., Agehara, S., & Peres, N. A. (2026) · Computers and Electronics in Agriculture · doi:10.1016/j.compag.2026.111526 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
CapsiScan: Autonomous Robotic System for Monitoring and Managing Greenhouse-Based Capsicum Farms
Jayakody, E. R. T., Rabel, W. T. T., Estrop, R. D. V., Herath, K. G. L. P., Harshanath, S. M. B., & Abeygunawardhana, P. K. W. (2023) · International Conference on Advancements in Computing (ICAC) · doi:10.1109/icac60630.2023.10417337 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Rodríguez-Álvarez, J. L., García-Alcaráz, J. L., Puig, R., & Soto-Cabral, A. (2024) · Neural Computing and Applications · doi:10.1007/s00521-024-10217-y · Cited by 4 · see citing works
ASPEN study case: Real time in situ apples detection and characterization
Chiang, C., Monney, A., Monney, P., & Christen, D. (2024) · Smart Agricultural Technology · doi:10.1016/j.atech.2024.100506 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
DATR: Diffusion-Based 3D Apple Tree Reconstruction Framework With Sparse-View
Qiu, T., Zoubi, A. Z., Lin, Y., Du, R., Cheng, L., & Jiang, Y. (2026) · IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters · doi:10.1109/lra.2026.3655283 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Comparative analysis of 2D and 3D vineyard yield prediction system using artificial intelligence
Barbole, D. K., & Jadhav, P. M. (2023) · Journal of Agricultural Engineering · doi:10.4081/jae.2023.1545 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Pichhika, H. C., Subudhi, P., & Yerra, R. V. P. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on AgriFood Electronics · doi:10.1109/tafe.2024.3513637 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Serafino, S., Cicerchia, B., Pérez, G., Adorno, S., & Balmer, A. (2020) · Latin American Computer Conference (CLEI) · doi:10.1109/clei52000.2020.00064 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Liu, X., Chen, S. W., Aditya, S., Sivakumar, N., Dcunha, S., Qu, C., Taylor, C. J., Das, J., & Kumar, V.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Venue
- 2018 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS)
- Publisher
- IEEE
- Published
- 2018-10
- Pages
- 1045-1052
- ISSN
- 2153-0858 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2963353662
- Cited by
- 135
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 13
- FWCI
- 40.72
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Agriculture (2015-67021-23857)
- University of Pennsylvania
- Washington State University
- National Institute of Food and Agriculture (67021)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Plant Science › Smart Agriculture and AI
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Video Surveillance and Tracking Methods
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Neural Network Applications
- Keywords
- fruit counting, fruit segmentation, object tracking, structure from motion, 3D localization, monocular camera, nighttime imaging, fully convolutional network, Kalman filter, Kanade-Lucas-Tomasi tracker, Hungarian algorithm, outlier removal, double-counting correction, plant phenotyping
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