A Survey on Digital Twins: Architecture, Enabling Technologies, Security and Privacy, and Future Prospects

Digital twin: Enabling technologies, challenges and open research

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The information bottleneck method

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A Survey on Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI): Toward Medical XAI

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A Comprehensive Survey of Multiagent Reinforcement Learning

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A survey on digital twin: definitions, characteristics, applications, and design implications

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Digital Twins: A Survey on Enabling Technologies, Challenges, Trends and Future Prospects

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Beyond Transmitting Bits: Context, Semantics, and Task-Oriented Communications

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Meta-Learning in Neural Networks: A Survey

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Decentralized Digital Twin Networks

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Secured and Cooperative Publish/Subscribe Scheme in Autonomous Vehicular Networks

Wang, Y., Su, Z., Xu, Q., Luan, T. H., & Lu, R. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems · doi:10.1109/tits.2023.3315052 · Cited by 10

Digital Twin-Assisted Adaptive Preloading for Short Video Streaming

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Electric mobility and beyond: advancing charging infrastructure optimization with digital twins

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FPGA-Based Sensors for Distributed Digital Manufacturing Systems: A State-of-the-Art Review

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Harnessing hybrid digital twinning for decision-support in smart infrastructures

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Data Governance and Analytics Infrastructure for Scalable Decision-Making in Development and Agritech Programs

Sami, M. A., Hemal, M. A. K. P., Alam, M. I., & Rahman, M. L. (2024) · European Journal of Applied Science Engineering and Technology · doi:10.59324/ejaset.2024.2(2).28 · Cited by 9

Digital Twins in Healthcare: Security, Privacy, Trust and Safety Challenges

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A physical-virtual based digital twin robotic hand

Singh, O., & Ray, A. K. (2024) · International Journal on Interactive Design and Manufacturing (IJIDeM) · doi:10.1007/s12008-024-01773-7 · Cited by 8

A survey of joint security-safety for function, information and human in industry 5.0

Hong, Y., Wu, J., & Guan, X. (2024) · Security and Safety · doi:10.1051/sands/2024014 · Cited by 12

Research advancements in quantum computing digital twins

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Secure lightweight digital twin (DT) technology for seamless wireless communication in vehicular ad hoc network

Kishore, M. K., Kumar, V., & Nancharaiah, B. (2025) · Computers & Electrical Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.compeleceng.2025.110291 · Cited by 8

A novel AI-driven framework of collaborative intelligent operation and maintenance in cloud-edge computing power networks

Dui, H., Wang, J., Wang, S., & Xia, W. (2025) · Reliability Engineering & System Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ress.2025.111963 · Cited by 8

Exploring the Applications and Challenges of Digital Twins in Various Industries

Jyothi, A. P., Shankar, A., R, A. N. J., Koliparthy, K., Badiger, V. N., & Shivakumar, V. (2024) · IEEE International Conference for Convergence in Technology (I2CT) · doi:10.1109/i2ct61223.2024.10543818 · Cited by 8

RSAKA-VDT: Designing Reliable and Provably Secure Authenticated Key Agreement Scheme for Vehicular Digital Twin Networks

Wang, K., Dong, J., Wang, S., Yuan, Z., Sha, L., & Xiao, F. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology · doi:10.1109/tvt.2025.3552481 · Cited by 8

Intrusion Detection in a Digital Twin-Enabled Secure Industrial Internet of Things Environment for Industrial Sustainability

Ahmed, M. A., & Alnatheer, S. (2025) · Engineering Technology & Applied Science Research · doi:10.48084/etasr.10128 · Cited by 7

Digital technologies for precise carbon balancing in timber procurement

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Migrate or Not: Medical Digital Twins in the Era of 6G Edge-Based Networks

Suraci, C., Chukhno, O., Muntean, G., Molinaro, A., & Araniti, G. (2025) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2025.3569314 · Cited by 7

A Privacy-Preserving and Trustworthy Inference Framework for LLM-IoT Integration via Hierarchical Federated Collaborative Computing

Han, C., Yang, T., Cui, Z., & Sun, X. (2025) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2025.3583764 · Cited by 8

Toward a Privacy-Preserving and Secure Smart City: Recent Advances in User-Centric Applications

Momeni, M. R., Jabbari, A., Fung, C., & Boutaba, R. (2025) · IEEE Internet of Things Journal · doi:10.1109/jiot.2025.3607211 · Cited by 8

The role and applications of airport digital twin in cyberattack protection during the generative AI era

Weinberg, A. I. (2026) · Discover Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1007/s44163-026-00916-x · Cited by 13

Digital twins as decision infrastructure: evolution, architecture, and research roadmap

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Multi-Attention Enhanced Discriminator for GAN-Based Anomalous Sound Detection

Liu, S., Li, J., Ke, W., & Yin, H. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp48485.2024.10447924 · Cited by 7

A Simulation-based Decision Support System for Urban Traffic Management

Calvio, A., Jindal, A., Bujari, A., Aujla, G. S., & Foschini, L. (2023) · IEEE International Workshop on Computer Aided Modeling and Design of Communication Links and Networks (CAMAD) · doi:10.1109/camad59638.2023.10478428 · Cited by 6

Digital Twins-Empowered Secure Network Slice Access and Isolation for Consumer Healthcare Applications

Bera, B., Das, A. K., & Sikdar, B. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Services Computing · doi:10.1109/tsc.2024.3422792 · Cited by 6

ForensicTwin: Incorporating Digital Forensics Requirements Within a Digital Twin

Akremi, A. (2025) · Computers · doi:10.3390/computers14040115 · Cited by 6

Bibliometric Study of Digital Twin for Sustainable Cities and Society

Bhatia, M., & Kumar, V. (2025) · ACM Journal on Computing and Sustainable Societies · doi:10.1145/3748820 · Cited by 7

A Survey on GenAI-Driven Digital Twins: Toward Intelligent 6G Networks and Metaverse Systems

Naeem, F., Ali, M., Kaddoum, G., Faheem, Y., Zhang, Y., Debbah, M. A., & Yuen, C. (2025) · IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society · doi:10.1109/ojcoms.2025.3641307 · Cited by 8

Leveraging Generative AI for Security Defense of Mobile Edge-Enabled Digital Twins: A Survey

Yang, Y., Sun, G., Du, H., Zhao, C., Xiong, Z., Niyato, D., Jamalipour, A., Han, Z., & Letaief, K. B. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Cognitive Communications and Networking · doi:10.1109/tccn.2026.3683228 · Cited by 6

Does Twinning Vehicular Networks Enhance Their Performance in Dense Areas?

Al–Shareeda, S., Oktuğ, S., Yaslan, Y., Yurdakul, G., & Canberk, B. (2024) · IEEE Consumer Communications and Networking Conference · doi:10.1109/ccnc51664.2024.10454851 · Cited by 6

Learning-powered migration of social digital twins at the network edge

Chukhno, O., Chukhno, N., Araniti, G., Campolo, C., Iera, A., & Molinaro, A. (2024) · Computer Communications · doi:10.1016/j.comcom.2024.07.019 · Cited by 6

A comprehensive survey on the convergence of Blockchain, Digital Twins, and Metaverse: Shaping the future of cybersecurity frameworks

Ahmad, A., Shah, A., Alnumay, W. S., Adnan, M., Anwer, S., & Zaman, Q. U. (2025) · Computers & Electrical Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.compeleceng.2025.110486 · Cited by 8

Efficiency and Enhanced Performance: Exploring Digital Twin Implementation in Power Plants

Semeraro, C., Aljaghoub, H., Mdallal, A., Abdelkareem, M. A., & Olabi, A. G. (2025) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Technology · doi:10.53941/rset.2025.100005 · Cited by 6

Digital twin applications in geotechnical engineering: a systematic review

Wang, Y., Rezaei, A., & Hicks, S. (2025) · Machine Learning and Data Science in Geotechnics · doi:10.1108/mlag-02-2025-0005 · Cited by 8

From human artefact to machine output: automating the “art” of psychological measurement

Marmolejo‐Ramos, F., Bulut, O., Anunciação, L., Marques, L. D. N., Barthakur, A., Kundrát, J., Rečka, K., Karakale, Ö., Correa, J. C., Ullauri, L. A. P., et al. (2025) · Journal of Psychology and AI · doi:10.1080/29974100.2025.2561692 · Cited by 5

Digital Twin and Integrated Sensing and Communication Applications in Internet of Things: Enabling Communication Technologies, Taxonomy, Implications, and Open Issues

Hamadou, A. N. S., Du, S., Olwal, T. O., & van Wyk, B. J. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app16010073 · Cited by 5

A Quantitative Framework for the Validation of Twin-Based Cyber Defense

Baiardi, F., & Sammartino, V. (2025) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2025.12.070 · Cited by 5

Harnessing digital twins: transforming livestock supply chain management: a comprehensive review

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Next-Generation AI-Driven Digital Twin Framework for Market Volatility Warning and Risk Detection in Global Logistics Supply Chains

Chen, Q., Wang, X., & Liu, L. (2026) · IEEE Communications Standards Magazine · doi:10.1109/mcomstd.2025.3641867 · Cited by 5

Autonomous Trams and Urban Infrastructure: A Methodological Approach to Testing and Integration

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Digital twin (DT)-based predictive maintenance of a 6G communication network

Muteba, F. (2024) · Procedia Computer Science · doi:10.1016/j.procs.2024.06.058 · Cited by 5

A Blockchain-Based Mutual Authentication Scheme With Data Sovereignty for IoT-Based Healthcare Digital Twin Environments

Kwon, D., Das, A. K., & Park, Y. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics · doi:10.1109/tce.2025.3608165 · Cited by 5

Digital twin framework using agent-based metaheuristic optimization

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Security Orchestration with Explainability for Digital Twins-Based Smart Systems

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Semantic Communication Networks Empowered Artificial Intelligence of Things

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Toward a Unified Security Framework for Digital Twin Architectures

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Real-Time Cyber Threat Detection in Smart Cities Using Artificial Intelligence

Wang, T., He, Y., & Hao, M. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics · doi:10.1109/tce.2025.3565011 · Cited by 4

B2B marketing in metaverse: toward a theoretical framework

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Preventing data-driven risk propagation in human–artificial intelligence interaction: A scenario security architecture

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Digital Twins for smart campus networks: An end-to-end framework for multi-domain data intelligence

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A Real-Time Trust Management Model Using Digital Twin in IoT Networks

Soula, M., Mbarek, B., & Meddeb, A. (2024) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2024.3506870 · Cited by 4

A multi-scenario model fusion and verification method for digital twin machine tool

Li, H., Yan, P., Zhou, H., Pei, J., & Wang, B. (2025) · Journal of Industrial Information Integration · doi:10.1016/j.jii.2025.100859 · Cited by 4

Controlled Quantum Anonymous Publication

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Opportunities and Challenges of AIGC in Smart Education

Lin, J., Ge, Y., Lin, J., & Pu, H. (2025) · International Journal of Crowd Science · doi:10.26599/ijcs.2024.9100018 · Cited by 4

Physical Layer Security Against Passive Eavesdropper in Digital Twin-Enabler Power Grid: An IRS-Assisted Approach

Liu, X., Wang, R., Liu, Y., Liu, D., Zhang, F., Sun, L., & Luan, T. H. (2023) · IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC) · doi:10.1109/pimrc56721.2023.10293929 · Cited by 4

A secure and lightweight data sharing scheme in vehicular digital twin network

Li, G., Luan, T. H., Zheng, J., Hu, D., Cao, J., & Wu, Y. (2024) · Peer-to-Peer Networking and Applications · doi:10.1007/s12083-024-01833-5 · Cited by 4

A ROS-Based Autonomous Vehicle Testbed for the Internet of Vehicles

Sarantinoudis, N., Tsinarakis, G. J., Doitsidis, L., Chatzichristofis, S. A., & Arampatzis, G. (2023) · International Conference on Distributed Computing in Smart Systems and the Internet of Things (DCOSS-IoT) · doi:10.1109/dcoss-iot58021.2023.00114 · Cited by 4

Digital Twins (DT) Applied to the Customization of 3D Printed Scara Robots Using Intelligent Manufacturing

Lopes, W. A. C., Rusteiko, A. C., Mendes, C. R., Honório, N. V. C., & Okano, M. T. (2024) · IFIP advances in information and communication technology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-71633-1_29 · Cited by 5

Semantic Viruses: How to Destroy a Task Oriented Semantic Communication Network

Zhu, H., Song, F., & Zhu, K. (2025) · IEEE Wireless Communications and Networking Conference · doi:10.1109/wcnc61545.2025.10978577 · Cited by 3

Prioritising Critical Barriers to Digital Twins Implementation for Sustainable Smart Facility Management in the Built Environment: A Global Study

Ghansah, F. A., Udeaja, C. E., Darko, A., Lu, W., Agyekum‐Mensah, G., Antwi-Afari, P., Twum-Ampofo, S., Ababio, B. K., & Debrah, C. (2025) · CIB Conferences · doi:10.7771/3067-4883.1911 · Cited by 3

Predictive maintenance for wind turbines: A physics-driven reinforcement learning strategy with economic-reliability collaborative optimization

Zhu, J., Chen, W., Su, L., Lan, B., Pei, T., & Jin, L. (2025) · Energy and AI · doi:10.1016/j.egyai.2025.100620 · Cited by 6

Enabling secure and trusted digital twin federations with data spaces

Martella, C., Martella, A., & Longo, A. (2025) · ACM International Symposium on Theory, Algorithmic Foundations, and Protocol Design for Mobile Networks and Mobile Computing (MobiHoc) · doi:10.1145/3704413.3765512 · Cited by 3

The construction of an integrated cloud network digital intelligence platform for rail transit based on artificial intelligence

Wang, K., Zhou, X., & Guan, J. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-29732-6 · Cited by 3

In-depth analysis of organisational structures for digital twin ecosystems

Melo, V., Pires, F., Barbosa, J., la Prieta, F. D., & Leitão, P. (2025) · Production & Manufacturing Research · doi:10.1080/21693277.2025.2591786 · Cited by 3

6G Wireless Communications Enabled by the Blockchain: Privacy and Middleware Architecture

Chanda, M., Mazumder, O., Rahman, T., & Ferdous, J. (2026) · International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks · doi:10.1155/dsn/2401701 · Cited by 3

Recent advancements in blockchain-enabled Digital Twins for sustainable energy systems in urban development: A review

Mohammadi, F., Montazeri, S. H., Ayatollahi, F. S., Emamian, M., Danaeifar, S., Arani, Z. D., Javid, H. R. P., MotieShirazi, F., Tayebli, R., Mohammadisharmeh, S., et al. (2026) · Sustainable Cities and Society · doi:10.1016/j.scs.2026.107179 · Cited by 3

A scalable and modular open-source stack for computing continuum digital twins

Filinis, N., Spatharakis, D., Dimolitsas, I., Fotopoulou, E., Vassilakis, C., Zafeiropoulos, A., & Papavassiliou, S. (2026) · Future Generation Computer Systems · doi:10.1016/j.future.2026.108411 · Cited by 3

Personalization in the metaverse: A survey on recommender systems across immersive technologies

Bouayad, A., Akdim, I., Illi, C., Moudakir, F. Z., Mekouar, L., & Iraqi, Y. (2026) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2026.131614 · Cited by 3

Behavioral trust management in Digital Twin systems using safe state analysis and virtual validation

Azzedin, F., Alhazmi, T. A., Abawajy, J., & Hammoudeh, M. (2026) · Information and Software Technology · doi:10.1016/j.infsof.2026.108093 · Cited by 3

ECroA: Efficient Cross-Domain Authentication in Dynamic Digital Twins of Wireless Industrial IoT

Xia, Y., Liu, X., & Yin, Y. (2026) · IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications · doi:10.1109/jsac.2026.3669135 · Cited by 3

Multi-Perspective Trust Framework for Digital Twin Systems: Architectural Design, Massive Twinning, and Stakeholder Assurance

Azzedin, F., Alhazmi, T. A., & Hammoudeh, M. (2026) · Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering · doi:10.1007/s13369-026-11177-2 · Cited by 3

Digital twins for stroke prediction and management

Olawade, D. B. (2026) · Brain Hemorrhages · doi:10.1016/j.hest.2026.04.002 · Cited by 3

Digital Twin–enabled predictive maintenance in wind, solar PV, hydropower, and battery energy storage systems: a review and maturity framework

Sulaima, M. F., Pradhan, A. K., Lenort, R., Frischer, R., Krejcar, O., & Namazi, H. (2026) · Energy Conversion and Management X · doi:10.1016/j.ecmx.2026.101920 · Cited by 3

State-of-the-Art on Digital Twin Technologies for Industrial Applications and the Federated Digital Twin Lifecycle Model (F-DTLM)

Pekša, J., & Mamchur, D. (2026) · Automation · doi:10.3390/automation7030077 · Cited by 3

Prediction-Based Scheduling for Digital Twin Synchronization With AoI and Spatial Urgency

Kim, K., Kim, J.-W., & Lee, H.-S. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics · doi:10.1109/tii.2026.3698880 · Cited by 3

A Comprehensive Survey on Cybersecurity Challenges and Defenses for Integrated Air, Ground, and Underwater Autonomous Vehicle Systems

Ahmad, I., Narmeen, R., Mughal, U. A., Yang, L., Li, J., Alkhrijah, Y. M., & Khan, M. K. (2026) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · doi:10.1109/comst.2026.3708340 · Cited by 3

Task Dependency Aware Optimal Resource Allocation for URLLC Edge Network: A Digital Twin Approach Using Finite Blocklength

Awais, M., Pervaiz, H., Ni, Q., & Yu, W. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Green Communications and Networking · doi:10.1109/tgcn.2024.3425442 · Cited by 3

A Parallel Intelligent Search and Rescue System for Swarm Robots Based on Digital Twin

Guo, L., Cai, G., Zhu, K., Qiu, H., & Liu, C. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-5675-9_1 · Cited by 3

A Comprehensive Survey on Enhancing Digital Twin Security Systems with Explainable AI Techniques

Lalithadevi, B., & Krishnaveni, S. (2025) · International Conference on Intelligent Data Communication Technologies and Internet of Things (IDCIoT) · doi:10.1109/idciot64235.2025.10915028 · Cited by 3

Digital Twins Driven by Artificial Intelligence to Mitigate, Detect, and Simulate Virtual Space Cyber Threats

Praveenkumar, K., Balasm, Z., Bharathi, P., Premalatha, B., Ataev, S., & Priya, P. (2025) · International Conference on Computational Innovations and Engineering Sustainability (ICCIES) · doi:10.1109/iccies63851.2025.11032312 · Cited by 4

Electric Network Frequency as Environmental Fingerprint for Metaverse Security: A Comprehensive Survey

Hatami, M., Dorje, L., Li, X., & Chen, Y. (2025) · Computers · doi:10.3390/computers14080321 · Cited by 3

Towards a Scalable Architecture for Building Digital Twins at the Edge

Mishra, S., & Alanezi, K. (2023) · ACM/IEEE Symposium on Edge Computing (SEC) · doi:10.1145/3583740.3626807 · Cited by 3

Perspective Chapter: From Avatar Technology to Interactive Holographic Digital Twin

Iovane, G., Fominska, I., & Sibilio, M. (2025) · IntechOpen eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.1008910 · Cited by 3

Substation simulation synchronization - towards a distributed and scaled power grid cyber range

Biswas, J., Godse, R., Chen, B., Roomi, M. M., & Ng, B. (2024) · ACM International Conference on Future Energy Systems (e-Energy) · doi:10.1145/3632775.3661992 · Cited by 2

A Novel Architecture for Virtual Network Twin Deployment

Banisadr, A. H., & Hesselbach, X. (2024) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics13245045 · Cited by 2

Digital Twin Networks for Sustainable In-network Computing in Future 6G Networks

Becattini, M., Fontani, G., Paroli, L., & Iera, A. (2024) · IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC) · doi:10.1109/pimrc59610.2024.10817423 · Cited by 2

Social-Aware DT-Assisted Service Provisioning in Serverless Edge Computing

Li, J., Wang, J., Liang, W., Wu, J., Chen, Q., & Xu, Z. (2024) · International Conference on Mobility, Sensing and Networking (MSN) · doi:10.1109/msn63567.2024.00059 · Cited by 2

Critical Information Infrastructures Intelligent Protection: Digital Twins and Neural Network-Based Threat Detection Methods

Mityakov, E. S., Ladynin, A. I., Шмелева, А. Г., & Kazakevich, I. D. (2025) · International Conference on Neural Networks and Neurotechnologies (NeuroNT) · doi:10.1109/neuront66873.2025.11049978 · Cited by 2

DT-Assisted Vehicular Crowdsensing Through Semantic-Aware NDN

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