A hierarchical framework-based coordinated optimization of building HVAC systems and EVs
Abstract
The demands of electric vehicles (EVs) and building heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems have considerable flexibility. Their flexibility is influenced by occupants’ behavior resulting in huge complementary and dispatchable capability. Therefore, the coordination of EVs and HVAC systems holds significant potential for optimizing the building demand profiles and energy cost under time-of-use (TOU) tariffs. However, solving the coordinated problem in practice still faces the challenges in computational complexity and global information requirement due to the spatio-temperal coupling constraints. In this paper, a mixed-integer linear programming model is developed to formulate the multi-building energy system with EVs and the impact of occupants’ behavior on the demand and flexibility of the system. The problem is converted into a three-level structure using Lagrangian relaxation framework. A dynamic programming-based Lagrangian relaxation (DPLR) algorithm is developed to independently solve all sub-problems of the three-level structure in a decomposition and coordination way while avoiding the iterative computation between the middle and lower level. The numerical results show the developed method can obtain a near-optimal solution in an efficient way without perceivable degradation in accuracy, which is 4% worse but at least three times faster, compared to the existing centralized algorithm. Note to Practitioners—The escalating demand for EVs and HVAC syst…
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Most mentioned studies overlook the potential benefits of an integrated DER environment, such as DERMS, where EVs could operate in coordination with other DERs to enhance overall grid stability and flexibility.
“Second, most studies overlook the potential benefits of an integrated DER environment, such as DERMS, where EVs could operate in coordination with other DERs to enhance overall grid stability and flexibility.”
From Improving distribution system flexibility using electric vehicles under the distributed energy resource management system framework (2026) · cites this paper as [22]
Cites
Linear and Nonlinear Programming
Luenberger, D. G., & Ye, Y. (2008) · International series in management science/operations research/International series in operations research & management science · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-74503-9 · Cited by 2,830 · see citing works
Lü, N., & Zhang, Y. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid · doi:10.1109/tsg.2012.2222944 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
An optimization-based method for unit commitment
Guan, X., Luh, P. B., Yan, H., & Amalfi, J. A. (1992) · International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems · doi:10.1016/0142-0615(92)90003-r · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Self-citationIntegrated Energy Exchange Scheduling for Multimicrogrid System With Electric Vehicles
Wang, D., Guan, X., Wu, J., Li, P., Zan, P., & Xu, H. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid · doi:10.1109/tsg.2015.2438852 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Self-citationReal-Time Charging Strategies for an Electric Vehicle Aggregator to Provide Ancillary Services
Wenzel, G., Negrete-Pincetic, M., Olivares, D. E., MacDonald, J., & Callaway, D. S. (2017) · IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid · doi:10.1109/tsg.2017.2681961 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Matching EV Charging Load With Uncertain Wind: A Simulation-Based Policy Improvement Approach
Huang, Q., Jia, Q., Qiu, Z., Guan, X., & Deconinck, G. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid · doi:10.1109/tsg.2014.2385711 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Self-citationWang, X., Li, F. F., Dong, J., Olama, M. M., Zhang, Q., Shi, Q., Park, B., & Kuruganti, T. P. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid · doi:10.1109/tsg.2021.3075386 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Decentralized EV-Based Charging Optimization With Building Integrated Wind Energy
Yang, Y., Jia, Q., Guan, X., Zhang, X., Qiu, Z., & Deconinck, G. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2018.2856908 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationQ -Learning-Based Model Predictive Control for Energy Management in Residential Aggregator
Ojand, K., & Dagdougui, H. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2021.3091334 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Sun, B., Luh, P. B., Jia, Q., & Yan, B. Y. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2015.2455419 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Decentralized Coordination of a Building Manager and an Electric Vehicle Aggregator
Contreras-Ocaña, J. E., Sarker, M. R., & Ortega‐Vazquez, M. A. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid · doi:10.1109/tsg.2016.2614768 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Rahman, T., Xu, Y., & Qu, Z. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2021.3072932 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Optimal Planning of Internet Data Centers Decarbonized by Hydrogen-Water-Based Energy Systems
Liu, J., Xu, Z., Wu, J., Liu, K., Sun, X., & Guan, X. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2022.3213672 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationEvent-Based HVAC Control—A Complexity-Based Approach
Jia, Q., Wu, J., Wu, Z., & Guan, X. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2018.2844258 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationHierarchical Electric Vehicle Charging Aggregator Strategy Using Dantzig-Wolfe Decomposition
Amini, M. H., McNamara, P., Weng, P., Karabaşoğlu, O., & Xu, Y. (2017) · IEEE Design and Test · doi:10.1109/mdat.2017.2759505 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Coordinated optimization of multiple buildings with a fair price mechanism for energy exchange
Xu, Z., Hu, G., & Spanos, C. J. (2017) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2017.06.046 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationAggregation of V2H Systems to Participate in Regulation Market
Nakano, H., Nawata, I., Inagaki, S., Kawashima, A., Suzuki, T., Itô, A., & Kempton, W. M. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2020.3001060 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
EV Charging Scheduling Under Demand Charge: A Block Model Predictive Control Approach
Yang, L., Geng, X., Guan, X., & Tong, L. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2023.3260804 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Self-citationLong, T., & Jia, Q. (2021) · Complex System Modeling and Simulation · doi:10.23919/csms.2021.0001 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
A Simulation-Based Primal-Dual Approach for Constrained V2G Scheduling in a Microgrid of Building
Huang, Q., Yang, L., Jia, Q., Qi, Y., Zhou, C., & Guan, X. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2022.3188009 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationEconomic Operation of Thermostatic Loads Under Time Varying Prices: An Optimal Control Approach
Bhattacharya, S., Kar, K., & Chow, J. H. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy · doi:10.1109/tste.2018.2876797 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Yusuf, J., & Ula, S. (2020) · IEEE Power & Energy Society Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference (ISGT) · doi:10.1109/isgt45199.2020.9087656 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
A Computing Budget Allocation Method for Minimizing EV Charging Cost Using Uncertain Wind Power
Jiang, Z., Jia, Q., & Guan, X. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2020.2995914 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationMulti-agent based electric vehicle charging method for smart grid-smart building energy management
Hurtado, L. A., Syed, A., Nguyen, P. H., & Kling, W. L. (2015) · doi:10.1109/ptc.2015.7232774 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Optimal precooling of thermostatic loads under time-varying electricity prices
Bhattacharya, S., Kar, K., & Chow, J. H. (2017) · Proceedings of the ... American Control Conference/Proceedings of the American Control Conference · doi:10.23919/acc.2017.7963150 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Optimal Coordination of EVs and HVAC Systems with Uncertain Renewable Supply
Zhao, H., Xu, Z., Wu, J., Liu, K., Yang, L., & Guan, X. (2019) · IEEE International Conference on Automation Science and Engineering (CASE) · doi:10.1109/coase.2019.8843270 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationJoint scheduling of large-scale appliances and batteries via distributed mixed optimization
Yang, Z., Long, K., You, P., & Chow, M. (2015) · IEEE Power Engineering Society General Meeting · doi:10.1109/pesgm.2015.7286259 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Lee, S., & Jung, J. (2026) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2025.116292 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Quantum computing-enhanced large-scale residential electric vehicle charging management
Deng, Z., Li, Y., Wang, X., Jiang, Z., & Dong, B. (2025) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126772 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Yu, L., Chen, Z., Yue, D., Ye, Y., Štrbac, G., & Wang, Y. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2025.3551649 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Zhang, N., Zhang, Z., Yan, J., Hu, C., Sun, Q., Yang, L., Zhu, H., Gao, W., & Li, Y. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2026.3717969 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Yevsieiev, V., & Голод, І. (2026) · Open Information and Computer Integrated Technologies · doi:10.32620/oikit.2026.107.07 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Zeinal‐Kheiri, S., Mirzaei, M. A., & Parvania, M. (2026) · IET Smart Grid · doi:10.1049/stg2.70078
Qiao, W., Guo, G., Zhang, N., Han, Y., Si, F., & Zhao, Q. (2026) · IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering · doi:10.1109/tase.2026.3699470
Liu, J., & He, C. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6908535
Wen, X., & Li, H. (2026) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2026.118353
- Authors
- Zhao, H., Xu, Z., Wu, J., Liu, F., & Guan, X.
- Affiliations
- Xi'an Jiaotong University (CN)
- Venue
- IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering
- Published
- 2025
- Volume
- 22
- Pages
- 6530-6542
- ISSN
- 1545-5955 (ISSN-L)
- 1558-3783
- OpenAlex
- W4402808109
- Cited by
- 8
- References
- 27
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 3
- FWCI
- 0.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- IEEE Transactions on Automation Science and Engineering (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Natural Science Foundation of China (62122062, 62192755, 62192750, 62192752)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Smart Grid Energy Management
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Building and Construction › Building Energy and Comfort Optimization
- Keywords
- electric vehicle charging, HVAC systems, occupant behavior, time-of-use pricing, energy cost reduction, Lagrangian relaxation, hierarchical optimization, spatiotemporal coupling, decomposition and coordination
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
