Post-Quantum Weighted Anonymous Authentication for Hybrid VANET MAC Protocol
Open accessAbstract
Efficient Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols are crucial for time-sensitive transmissions of safety and non-safety messages. The IEEE 802.11p standard requires enhancements for varying channel conditions, including error-prone environments. This paper proposes HVMAC, a hybrid VANET MAC protocol that enhances Quality of Service (QoS) for time-sensitive data traffic applications. It categorizes service channels into contention and scheduled channels. The HVMAC protocol is modeled with Markov chains and evaluated against IEEE 802.11p on offered load, average delay, throughput, reliability, and energy consumption (upto 90%). To improve HVMAC security during safety messages (SM) and service advertisement messages (SAM) transmission, a Post-Quantum Weighted Anonymous Authentication (PQWAA) is proposed. The weighted certificate authority (WCA) assigns priority weights to vehicles, for effective traffic management and resource distribution. PQWAA ensures secure authentication and message integrity using quantum-resistant cryptography and pseudonym-based key derivation. Integrating PQWAA with HVMAC ensures energy efficiency and secure communication for both safety and non-safety applications, offering a comprehensive solution for modern VANET environments. The proposed protocol is analyzed with existing techniques based on the packet delivery ratio, throughput, and average packet delay, values of 99%, (45-50)Mbps, and 50 ms. Also, the HVMAC protocol shows 81.23% lower channel collision than TDMA-MAC.
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- Findingown data
Reliability of higher data rates is remarkably better than that of lower data rates.
“As shown in Figure 7b, the reliability of higher data rates is remarkably better than that of lower ones.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingown data
Under high data traffic loads, reliability performance at 27 Mbps does not fall below 50%.
“The network is evaluated under high data traffic loads; however, the reliability performance at 27 Mbps does not fall below 50%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingreasoning
In HVMAC, average delay decreases as data rate increases.
“The average delay of HVMAC decreases with higher data rates due to the end-to-end delay.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingown data
Packet transmission delay of HVMAC is lower than that of IEEE 802.11p.
“Additionally, the packet transmission delay of HVMAC is lower in comparison, demonstrating the reliability of the proposed scheme, as shown in Figures 8d and 8e.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingown data
As vehicle velocity increases, the delay gap becomes more pronounced.
“As vehicle velocity increases, the delay gap becomes more pronounced, underscoring the protocol's ability to handle higher mobility efficiently.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingnone given
Increasing the number of nodes reduces overall throughput.
“However, increasing the number of nodes also reduces the overall throughput.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingnone given
Communication cost of PQWAA is primarily influenced by the size of the messages exchanged during registration, key generation, and authentication phases.
“The communication cost of PQWAA is primarily influenced by the size of the messages exchanged during the registration, key generation, and authentication phases.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Proposed framework achieves approximately a 40% increase in readings per second.
“The cooperative features of the proposed framework prove an important enhancement in implementation, achieving approximately a 40% increase in readings per second.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingnone given
Proposed approach is 36% more efficient in terms of throughput.
“In terms of throughput, the proposed approach is 36% more efficient.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingown data
HVMAC demonstrates improved scalability as the delay gap increases with a growing number of vehicles on the road.
“HVMAC demonstrates improved scalability as the delay gap increases with a growing number of vehicles on the road.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingreasoning
HVMAC achieves 50% lower delay than IEEE 802.11p.
“HVMAC combines contention-based and contention-free access, achieving 30% higher throughput and 50% lower delay than IEEE 802.11p by reducing collisions and retransmissions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingnone given
In a simulation with vehicle density ranging from 200 to 300 over 300s, HVMAC showed an 81.23% lower channel collision than TDMA-MAC.
“In a simulation with vehicle density ranging from 200 to 300 over 300s, the HVMAC protocol showed an 81.23% lower channel collision than TDMA-MAC.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingown data
HVMAC's efficient resource allocation, low latency, smaller contention window, and high packet delivery rate result in lower throughput than LBPQ and QRN.
“HVMAC's efficient resource allocation, low latency, smaller contention window, and high packet delivery rate result in lower throughput than LBPQ and QRN (Figure 9c).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingown data
In QRN technique, 91% packets deliver successfully.
“Similarly, in the QRN technique 91% packets deliver successfully as illustrated in Figure 9b.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingnone given
Proposed framework utilizes computing throughput more effectively, with a 62% improvement.
“The analysis reveals that the proposed framework utilizes computing throughput more effectively, with a 62% improvement.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingown data
Proposed protocol supports higher mobility than standard IEEE 802.11p.
“This suggests that the proposed protocol supports higher mobility than the standard IEEE 802.11pMAC protocol.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingreasoning
Probability of the free channel is higher at increased data rates.
“The results show that the probability of the free channel is higher at increased data rates.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingown data
HVMAC throughput is higher than that of standard IEEE 802.11p.
“We observed that the throughput of the HVMAC is quite higher than that of the standard IEEE 802.11p, as shown in Figure 8a.”
- Also stated in: § A. Performance Analysis of HVMAC · hedged
“The results indicate that the proposed Hybrid VMAC protocol's throughput is much better than the standard IEEE 802.11pMAC protocol.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Also stated in: § A. Performance Analysis of HVMAC · hedged
- Findingown data
HVMAC protocol surpasses others in terms of delay, both in low and high-mobility scenarios.
“The results indicate that the HVMAC protocol surpasses others in terms of delay, both in low and high-mobility scenarios.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Findingown data
Almost 88% of packets were successfully delivered in LBPQ due to blockchain integration with multiple nodes and aggregation technique.
“The packet delivery mechanism is not highly considered in LBPQ, but due to blockchain integration with multiple nodes and aggregation technique, we observed that almost 88% of packets were successfully delivered.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Premisecitation
Quantum computing undermines traditional cryptographic systems such as ECC and RSA.
“The widely recognized cryptosystem undermines traditional cryptographic systems such as ECC and RSA, creating Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] source
- Interpretationreasoning
The Markov chain effectively captures state transitions, including contention window dynamics and time-slot allocation, offering a comprehensive analysis of transmission probabilities and expected performance under varying traffic conditions.
“The Markov chain effectively captures state transitions, including the contention window dynamics for CSMA/CA and the time-slot allocation process for TDMA, offering a comprehensive analysis of transmission probabilities and expected performance under varying traffic conditions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
By combining PQC into VANETs, long-term security for energy-efficient vehicular communications can be guaranteed, even against quantum-capable adversaries.
“By combining PQC into VANETs, long-term security for energy-efficient vehicular communications can be guaranteed, even against quantum-capable adversaries [7].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [7] source
- Interpretationnone given
HVMAC enhances QoS for time-sensitive data traffic applications.
“This paper proposes HVMAC, a hybrid VANET MAC protocol that enhances Quality of Service (QoS) for time-sensitive data traffic applications.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
At higher data rates, packets spend less time in the buffer and are processed quickly compared to lower data rates.
“At higher data rates, packets spend less time in the buffer and are processed quickly compared to lower data rates.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Interpretationreasoning
Out of two transmissions of the secure control message, at least one will surely be received.
“This means that out of two transmissions of the secure control message, at least one will surely be received.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Interpretationreasoning
PQWAA protocol attains resistance against quantum-based attacks such as MITM, impersonation, and replay attacks.
“The PQWAA protocol attains resistance against quantum-based attacks such as man-in-themiddle (MITM), impersonation, & replay attacks.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In LBPQ, data throughput of non-aggregated blockchain increased from 7-57 readings in one second with a mean ratio of 21.5%.
“In LBPQ, transactions are executed for throughput, which shows that the data throughput of non-aggregated blockchain increased from 7-57 readings in one second with a mean ratio of 21.5%.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] source
- Interpretationnone given
PQWAA protocol ensures secure message authentication by using pseudonym-based authentication and session key derivation.
“The PQWAA protocol ensures secure message authentication by using pseudonymbased authentication and session key derivation.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Resistance against quantum-based attacks is primarily due to quantum-resistant cryptographic primitives and dynamic pseudonym updates.
“This is primarily due to quantum-resistant cryptographic primitives and dynamic pseudonym updates.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In case of QRN, throughput is lower because of computation overhead.
“In case of QRN, the throughput is lower because of the computation overhead.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [26] source
- Premisereasoning
LBPQ lowers the efficiency of the platoon up to 44%.
“This will further lower the efficiency of the platoon up to 44%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] source
- Interpretationreasoning
Higher data rates serve packets for shorter durations.
“This is due to higher data rates serving packets for shorter durations.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
- Premiseown data
LBPQ architecture outperforms the existing blockchain structure overall.
“This means that the LBPQ architecture outperforms the existing blockchain structure overall.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] source
- May combine two claims. 31
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 27
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningPerformance of the proposed protocol improves at higher data rates without significantly compromising transmission range and vehicle mobility.
“With an overall reduction in packet failures, the performance of the proposed protocol improves at higher data rates without significantly compromising transmission range and vehicle mobility.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataHVMAC performs better than standard IEEE 802.11p without compromising vehicle mobility.
“The HVMAC performs better than the standard IEEE 802.11pMAC protocol without compromising vehicle mobility.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
May combine two claims.
Findingnone givenPQWAA operations scale linearly with the size of the input data, making them efficient even for large-scale networks.
“These operations scale linearly with the size of the input data, making them efficient even for large-scale networks.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Findingnone givenPerformance of VANET degrades with increased mobility.
“However, the performance of the VANET degrades with increased mobility.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningHVMAC combines contention-based and contention-free access, achieving 30% higher throughput than IEEE 802.11p.
“HVMAC combines contention-based and contention-free access, achieving 30% higher throughput and 50% lower delay than IEEE 802.11p by reducing collisions and retransmissions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataHVMAC protocol outperforms existing MAC protocols in energy efficiency and resource utilization.
“The HVMAC protocol outperforms existing MAC protocols in energy efficiency and resource utilization, as illustrated in Figure 8f.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningPseudonym generation and session key derivation require minimal computational resources compared to traditional methods like RSA or ECC.
“Pseudonym generation, P V i = H 1 (I D V i ∥r ), and session key derivation, S K V i = H 2 (ω i ∥P V i ∥T ), require minimal computational resources compared to traditional methods like RSA or ECC.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationCombining PQC with hybrid MAC protocols ensures secure authentication, data integrity, and reliable communication, protecting against quantum-era challenges.
“Combining PQC with hybrid MAC protocols ensures secure authentication, data integrity, and reliable communication, protecting against the new challenges posed by the quantum era [5], [6].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe DA and Key Update phase enhances security and privacy by periodically updating pseudonyms and session keys for each vehicle.
“The DA and Key Update phase enhances security and privacy by periodically updating pseudonyms and session keys for each vehicle V i in a network.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenThe exponential backoff mechanism ensures fairness and stability under high traffic loads.
“The exponential backoff mechanism ensures fairness and stability under high traffic loads.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThis model addresses two adversarial scenarios: a malicious signer lacking the WCA's master secret and a malicious WCA incapable of replacing public keys.
“This model addresses two adversarial scenarios: a malicious signer lacking the WCA's master secret and a malicious WCA incapable of replacing public keys.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe dynamic behavior of the protocols ensures that critical data always has a higher chance of being transmitted successfully, while non-critical data is still transmitted with minimal delay under less demanding conditions.
“The dynamic behavior of the protocols ensures that critical data always has a higher chance of being transmitted successfully, while non-critical data is still transmitted with minimal delay under less demanding conditions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenAnonymous authentication methods often trade-off between privacy and computational overhead, lacking scalable post-quantum solutions.
“Anonymous authentication methods often trade-off between privacy and computational overhead, lacking scalable post-quantum solutions.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenExisting schemes rely on classical cryptographic primitives (ECDSA, RSA) that are weak to quantum computing attacks, leaving future ITS systems unprotected.
“Current schemes rely on classical cryptographic primitives (ECDSA, RSA) that are weak to quantum computing attacks, leaving future ITS systems unprotected”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenIntegrating Post-Quantum Anonymous Authentication and a hybrid MAC protocol ensures resilience against current and emerging threats.
“Integrating Post-Quantum Anonymous Authentication and a hybrid MAC protocol ensures resilience against current and emerging threats.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe PQWAA scheme's security hinges on its unforgeability against adversaries, utilizing a certificate-less design based on the random oracle model (ROM).
“The scheme's security hinges on its unforgeability against adversaries, utilizing a certificate-less design based on the random oracle model (ROM).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe PQWAA protocol guarantees authentication, message integrity, unforgeability, dynamic anonymity, and safeguarding against quantum-based attacks such as man-in-the-middle, impersonation, and replay.
“The protocol guarantees authentication, message integrity, unforgeability, dynamic anonymity, and safeguarding against quantum-based attacks such as man-in-the-middle, impersonation, and replay.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe PQWAA technique maintains security by proving the integrity of SM, preventing unauthorized access, and providing strong authentication.
“Likewise, the PQWAA technique maintains security by proving the integrity of SM, preventing unauthorized access, and providing strong authentication.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenCooperative messaging, NRP, and KTH enhance reliability by allowing vehicles and RSUs to participate in message forwarding.
“Cooperative messaging, NRP, and KTH enhance reliability by allowing vehicles and RSUs to participate in message forwarding.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenThe pseudonym P_Vi secures the vehicle's identity and establishes communication.
“The pseudonym P V i secures the vehicle's identity and establishes communication.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenExisting MAC protocols lack adaptive weight assignment for messages and inefficient resource allocation during traffic or emergencies.
“Likewise, existing MAC protocols lack adaptive weight assignment for messages and inefficient resource allocation during traffic or emergencies.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Premisenone givenMost MAC protocols don't consider SM and SAM for saturated and unsaturated traffic and use static priority allocation for message transmission, failing to adapt to dynamic traffic conditions.
“Most MAC protocols don't consider SM and SAM for saturated and unsaturated traffic and use static priority allocation for message transmission, failing to adapt to dynamic traffic conditions”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenPQWAA ensures secure authentication and message integrity using quantum-resistant cryptography and pseudonym-based key derivation.
“PQWAA ensures secure authentication and message integrity using quantum-resistant cryptography and pseudonymbased key derivation.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningHigher-priority vehicles are given precedence in communication, maintaining an efficient and orderly system.
“This ensures that higherpriority vehicles are given precedence in communication, maintaining an efficient and orderly system.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationHybrid protocols combine contention-free TDMA for critical data with CSMA/CA for event-driven transmissions, ensuring reliable and timely delivery.
“Hybrid protocols combine contention-free TDMA for critical data with CSMA/CA for event-driven transmissions, ensuring reliable and timely delivery [8].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [8] source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenPQC-based authentication ensures quantum-resilient security and vehicle anonymity, preventing unauthorized access.
“PQC-based authentication ensures quantum-resilient security and vehicle anonymity, preventing unauthorized access.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenPQWAA integrates seamlessly within the proposed MAC protocol, enhancing security and privacy by employing quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms.
“This mechanism integrates seamlessly within the proposed MAC protocol, enhancing security and privacy by employing quantum-resistant cryptographic algorithms.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
PremisecitationIntegrating PQC-based solutions is essential to secure future ITS against emerging quantum threats.
“As vehicular networks develop, integrating PQC-based solutions is essential to secure future ITS against emerging quantum threats [9].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [9] source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe sender chooses KTHs for SM and SAM transmission, enhancing communication reliability through diversity with more KTHs in a region.
“The sender chooses KTHs for SM and SAM transmission, enhancing communication reliability through diversity with more KTHs in a region [21].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] source
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThis hybrid model enables the proposed protocol to maintain high reliability and low latency for critical traffic while efficiently accommodating heterogeneous vehicular applications.
“This hybrid model enables the proposed protocol to maintain high reliability and low latency for critical traffic while efficiently accommodating heterogeneous vehicular applications.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenIntegrating PQWAA with HVMAC ensures energy efficiency and secure communication for both safety and non-safety applications.
“Integrating PQWAA with HVMAC ensures energy efficiency and secure communication for both safety and non-safety applications, offering a comprehensive solution for modern VANET environments.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningCombining PQWAA with HVMAC guarantees energy efficiency and secure communication for safety and non-safety purposes.
“Combining PQWAA with HVMAC guarantees energy efficiency and secure communication for safety and non-safety purposes, providing a thorough solution for contemporary VANET settings.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenAdding weighted authentication ensures that high-priority vehicles can access critical network resources promptly.
“Furthermore, adding weighted authentication ensures that high-priority vehicles can access critical network resources promptly.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningPQWAA balances efficiency and security using quantum-resistant cryptography for long-term protection.
“Using quantum-resistant cryptography for long-term protection, the PQWAA protocol balances efficiency and security.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenPQWAA enhances authentication efficiency through WCA and lightweight cryptography, lowering computational and energy overhead.
“PQWAA enhances authentication efficiency through WCA and lightweight cryptography, lowering computational and energy overhead.”
- Also stated in: § VI. CONCLUSION · plain
“PQWAA further improves energy efficiency with lightweight cryptographic operations, lowering computational overhead and energy during authentication.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Also stated in: § VI. CONCLUSION · plain
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenPQWAA's scalable authentication mechanism ensures low communication and computation costs for real-time applications.
“Its scalable authentication mechanism ensures low communication and computation costs for real-time applications.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenHVMAC integrates contention-based and free protocols, supports reservation-based delivery and low-data traffic access.
“HVMAC, which integrates contention-based and free protocols, supports reservation-based delivery and lowdata traffic access.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
PremisecitationQRN collision ratio is improved by 20%.
“In QRN [26] the collision ratio is improved by 20%.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [26] source
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenIn heavy traffic, computation overhead increases, and the expected number of collisions for 1-second transmission may increase up to Nv × (Nv)^2 × Pc.
“But in case of heavy traffic, the computation overhead increases, and the expected number of collisions for 1-second transmission may increase up to N v × (N v ) 2 × P c .”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The estimate takes no collision avoidance and a high frequency of transmission attempts.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationLBPQ leads to slower data delivery and high risks of collision.
“For smooth communication between trucks without collision, a low latency is required in LBPQ [25], which leads to slower data delivery and high risks of collision.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] source
The authors state this as an assumption.
Vehicles move at a constant velocity V within a transmission range T_r.
“Assuming N v road vehicles move at a constant velocity V within a transmission range of T r , the vehicles generate heterogeneous data traffic following a Poisson distribution.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The WCA is trusted to generate and distribute cryptographic parameters securely.
“The vehicular system utilizes a weighted certificate authority (WCA) to generate initial parameters and private keys for VANET, overseen by traffic administration for security.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The WCA's master secret remains secret from adversaries.
“This model addresses two adversarial scenarios: a malicious signer lacking the WCA's master secret and a malicious WCA incapable of replacing public keys.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The hash functions H1 and H2 are quantum-resistant random oracles.
“The secure hash functions H 1 and H 2 , designed as quantum-resistant random oracles, facilitate pseudonym generation and session key derivation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The Markov chain model accurately represents the HVMAC protocol's channel access behavior.
“The Markov chain model, shown in Figure 2, segments the transmission process into deterministic (TDMA) and stochastic (CSMA/CA).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Vehicle mobility is V for all vehicles.
“Vehicle mobility is assumed to be V for all the vehicles.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.
“However, we assume that each vehicle operates with independent data traffic.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The state of the channel is idle for the Markov model.
“Assume that the state of the channel is idle; the value of b o will be decreased to 1 and paused again once the channel goes busy.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The estimate takes no collision avoidance and a high frequency of transmission attempts.
“This estimate takes no collision avoidance and a high frequency of transmission attempts.”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Signature generation is specified as both private-key signing and hashing
MajorThe authentication description says a vehicle signs with its private key, but its signature equation uses only the message, session key, and timestamp. The stated signing operation contains no private key.
“For this, each vehicle V i signs a message M using its private key.The signature σ i is computed as: σ i = H 1 (M ∥ S K V i ∥ T ) (22”
“where, H 1 is a cryptographic hash function that combines the message M, the session key S K V i , and the timestamp T .”
The implementation uses a primitive the paper calls quantum-vulnerable
MajorThe experimental verification says it uses ECDSA for signatures, while the paper explicitly identifies ECDSA as a classical primitive vulnerable to quantum attacks. That conflicts with the claimed post-quantum authentication in the verified implementation.
“The cryptographic function ECDSA is used for PQAA signatures via the cryptography library”
“Current schemes rely on classical cryptographic primitives (ECDSA, RSA) that are weak to quantum computing attacks, leaving future ITS systems unprotected”
Safety messages are assigned to two different access methods
MajorThe protocol description places safety messages on the contention-based control channel, but a later description says they use dedicated TDMA slots on a service channel. These are incompatible accounts of how the same messages are transmitted.
“Vehicles exchange SM and SAM in the control channel via a contention-based CSMA/CA technique.”
“Critical data like SM is transmitted using the TDMA.These messages get dedicated time slots on the service channel with low latency and reliable delivery.”
A cited group-signature study has an unrelated listed title
MinorThe discussion attributes a lattice-based VANET group-signature scheme to reference [23], but the listed reference is about decentralized robot transport.
“A group signature scheme based on lattice cryptography allows secure and anonymous authentication in VANETs, as presented in [23].”
“23. Y. Gombo, A. Tiwari, and S. Devasia, "Communication-free cohesive flexible-object transport using decentralized robot networks," in Proc. Amer. Control Conf. (ACC), May 2021, pp. 106-111.”
Cites
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Unresolved
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- Authors
- Ahmad, T., Hadi, M. U., Vassiliou, V., Nigar, N., Jhaveri, R. H., Abaker, M., & Gadekallu, T. R.
- Affiliations
- University of Cyprus (CY)
- University of Ulster (GB)
- East Delta University (BD)
- Pandit Deendayal Energy University (IN)
- King Khalid University (SA)
- Zhejiang A & F University (CN)
- ORCID
- Venue
- IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems
- Published
- 2026-08
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 10364-10376
- ISSN
- 1524-9050 (ISSN-L)
- 1558-0016
- OpenAlex
- W4411948743
- Cited by
- 16
- References
- 26
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 7
- FWCI
- 3.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- pure.ulster.ac.uk
- Licence
- Locations
- IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems (publishedVersion)
- Ulster University Research Portal (Ulster University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Deanship of Research and Graduate Studies at King Khalid University for funding this work through the Large Research Project (RGP2/569/46)
- European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (739578)
- Government of Republic of Cyprus through the Deputy Ministry of Research, Innovation and Digital Policy
- European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program through the Marie Skłodowska-Curie (101034403)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs)
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Control and Systems Engineering › Traffic control and management
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Networks and Communications › Advanced Authentication Protocols Security
- Keywords
- vehicular ad hoc networks, medium access control, post-quantum cryptography, IEEE 802.11p, safety messages, quality of service, energy efficiency, Markov chain model, channel contention
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