Defining Reflection: Another Look at John Dewey and Reflective Thinking
Abstract
Thinking, particularly reflective thinking or inquiry, is essential to both teachers’ and students’ learning. In the past 10 to 15 years numerous commissions, boards, and foundations as well as states and local school districts have identified reflection/inquiry as a standard toward which all teachers and students must strive. However, although the cry for accomplishment in systematic, reflective thinking is clear, it is more difficult to distinguish what systematic, reflective thinking is. There are four problems associated with this lack of definition that make achievement of such a standard difficult. First, it is unclear how systematic reflection is different from other types of thought. Second, it is difficult to assess a skill that is vaguely defined. Third, without a clear picture of what reflection looks like, it has lost its ability to be seen and therefore has begun to lose its value. And finally, without a clear definition, it is difficult to research the effects of reflective teacher education and professional development on teachers’ practice and students’ learning. It is the purpose of this article to restore some clarity to the concept of reflection and what it means to think, by going back to the roots of reflection in the work of John Dewey. I look at four distinct criteria that characterize Dewey's view and offer the criteria as a starting place for talking about reflection, so that it might be taught, learned, assessed, discussed, and researched, and thereb…
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“Various commissions, boards, foundations, states, and local school districts identify developing reflective skills as a standard toward which all teachers and students must strive (Rodgers, 2002).”
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“Reflection is a meaning-making process that moves learners from one experience into another with deeper understanding of their practices and their connections to other experiences and ideas (Oliver et al., 2005; Rodgers, 2002).”
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“It has been argued to be a naturally (yet rarely) occurring thinking process that relates to meaning-making from experience and can be characterized to be systematic, rigorous, and disciplined (Clarà, 2015; Dewey, 1933; Rodgers, 2002).”
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“For example, if in theory reflexive inquiry is infinitely circular, then how can and when do RML sessions conclude? The introspective character of reflection and reflexivity also makes links between RML and the practical outcomes of this activity difficult to obtain (Ghaye, 2000; Rodgers, 2002) which runs the risk of…”
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Hierarchy of Students’ Reflective Thinking Levels in Mathematical Problem Solving
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“This level reflects the main description of a reflective thinker, namely, a problem solver who encounters problems but perseveres by considering various strategies for these problems to the end (Rodgers, 2002).”
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“Perhaps they fail because reflection is a demanding cognitive activity that is difficult to master (Rodgers, 2002), as it requires one to “decentre” (Bolam, Gleeson, & Murphy, 2003) and to step back from one’s own practice and “[visualize] oneself over time and place” (Stronach, Garratt, Pearce, &…”
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“In order to compare the goodness-of-fit for the two models, maximum likelihood estimation, a technique commonly conducted for confirmatory factor analysis (Pallant, 2011), was used since there were no universally accepted set of criterion to prove model fit (Kline, 2011).”
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“This does not mean that individuals are empty-minded or blindly accepting of new ideas; rather they are prepared to entertain different perspectives and not to cling too tightly to their own (Rodgers, 2002).”
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“It is relevant to Rodgers (2002) stated reflection is a systematic, rigorous, disciplined way of thinking, with its roots in scientific inquiry.”
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“Still, the subject could solve non-routine problems through formulated patterns, that is, patterns provided by the problems (Rodgers, 2002).”
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“Indeed, students must be ready to reflect indicating that openness towards reflection is necessary:” . . .an additional quality is necessary in the person—a quality of being present to the nature of the experience and an openness to its potential meanings” (Rodgers, 2002, p. 850).”
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“The findings based on this framework support educators’ and re-searchers’ claim that critical self-reflections deriving from a conceptual frame should become a habit of mind for preservice teachers’ professionalism (Artz, 1999; Randi & Corno, 2000; Rodgers, 2002).”
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“Based on a review of Dewey’s works, Rodgers (2002) defines reflection as follows: Reflection is … a tool or vehicle used in the transformation of raw experience into meaningfilled theory that is grounded in experiences, informed by existing theory, and serves the larger purpose of the moral growth…”
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“It is John Dewey’s (1933) work that serves as the “roots of reflection” (Rodgers, 2002).”
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“Models of experiential learning and reflective learning stemming from the work of Dewey (1910/1933) abound and are too vast to discuss in detail (e.g. Boud et al., 1985; Fendler, 2003; Kolb, 1984; Mezirow, 1991, 2000; Rodgers, 2002; Schon, 1983, 1987, 1991; Shermis, 1999).”
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“…the idea that reflective thinking practices are meant to make meaning and create a relationship with their learning experiences and other experiences in the classroom to create continuity (Rodgers, 2002) which can further enhance their teaching skills as well as develop critical thinking skills.”
BackgroundThe Teacher Education Program’s Impact on Preservice Teachers’ Reflective Thinking in Pakistan
Aslam, S., Hali, A. U., Zhang, B., & Saleem, A. (2021) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440211055724 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Schon (1991) and Rodgers (2002) also support Dewey’s viewpoint about reflection in problem-solving, but Mezirow’s (1991) theory provides more details about reflection.”
BackgroundHarrison, N., & Murray, B. (2012) · The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education · doi:10.1017/jie.2012.14 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“(Rogers, 2002, p. 860).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLessons from Research on Peace Education in Israel/Palestine
Salomon, G. (2013) · Asian Journal of Peacebuilding · doi:10.18588/201305.000002 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Perry, S. A. B. (2021) · Adult Education Quarterly · doi:10.1177/07417136211016779 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Adult learning scholarship, more generally, also continues to struggle articulating affect’s significance beyond how it supports or inhibits critical thinking (Boud & Walker, 1993; Dirkx, 2001; Rodgers, 2002; Taylor, 2009).”
BackgroundEDUCATING PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS THROUGH THE MASTER’S LEVEL TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMME IN FINLAND
Lavonen, J. (2016) · Bordón. Revista de pedagogía · doi:10.13042/bordon.2016.68204 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Carlson, J. R. (2019) · International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning · doi:10.20429/ijsotl.2019.130112 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Despite ubiquitous standing as a guiding principle in teacher education, there is no singular or unified definition of reflective practice (Rodgers, 2002).”
BackgroundDevelopment of reflective thinking through distance teacher education programs at AIOU Pakistan
Buzdar, M. A., & Ali, A. (2013) · The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning · doi:10.19173/irrodl.v14i3.1350 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Ng, K. S. P., Rao, Y., Lai, I. K. W., & Zhou, Y. Q. (2023) · Journal of Hospitality Leisure Sport & Tourism Education · doi:10.1016/j.jhlste.2023.100421 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Liu, Q., Wang, Y., & Chang, Y. (2024) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101709 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Olugbade, T., Newbold, J. W., Johnson, R., Volta, E., Alborno, P., Niewiadomski, R., Dillon, M., Volpe, G., & Bianchi‐Berthouze, N. (2020) · Northumbria Research Link (Northumbria University) · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Syamsuddin, A., Juniati, D., & Siswono, T. Y. E. (2020) · Universal Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.13189/ujer.2020.080644 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The aspects of the reflective thinking components are examined in the study adapted from Dewey [20], Lee [21], Rodgers [22] and Zehavi and Mann [23] which are detailed in the following Table 1.”
MethodAli, A. J. (2020) · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · doi:10.1007/s10798-020-09626-6 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Watson, M., & Barton, G. M. (2020) · Journal of International Students · doi:10.32674/jis.v10is2.2849 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Lastly, Rodgers (2002) claims that "student learning should guide teaching and practice.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Development of Reflective Practices for Islamic Religious Education Teachers
Purwanto, Y., Saepudin, A., & Sofaussamawati, S. (2023) · Jurnal Pendidikan Islam · doi:10.15575/jpi.v0i0.24155 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Building upon Dewey's theory, Rodgers (2002) further expanded it by identifying four main elements of reflective thinking.”
Stichwort: Reflexion im Pädagogischen Kontext
Lenske, G., & Lohse-Bossenz, H. (2023) · Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft · doi:10.1007/s11618-023-01196-2 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“In Anlehnung an die bislang vorgestellten Stufenmodelle, kann hierbei auch von einer technischen, oberfläch-lichen Auseinandersetzung, mit dem Ziel möglichst schnell ein Problem zu lösen bzw.”
BackgroundInfluentialEDAMA - Ein Rahmenmodell für Reflexion
Aeppli, J., & Lötscher, H. (2016) · BzL - Beiträge zur Lehrerinnen- und Lehrerbildung · doi:10.36950/bzl.34.1.2016.9540 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Bjørke, L., & Quennerstedt, M. (2023) · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/17408989.2023.2281913 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Rodgers (2002) exempli fi ed this with the rhetorical question: How many apples had fallen on heads before Newton perceived the inherent signi fi cance of the event?”
BackgroundMethodMantei, J., & Kervin, L. K. (2011) · The Australian journal of teacher education · doi:10.14221/ajte.2011v36n1.1 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Vol 36, 1 January 2011 8 Week 8: Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking (Rodgers, 2002) This reading was set later in the semester and the early career teachers had had some time to become familiar with the demands of this task and to develop deeper relationships with the members of…”
BackgroundInfluentialA Place for Digital Storytelling in Teacher Pedagogy
Clarke, A.-M. (2017) · Universal Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.13189/ujer.2017.051121 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Impacting teaching and learning through collaborative reflective practice
Tobin, B., Farren, M., & Crotty, Y. (2024) · Educational Action Research · doi:10.1080/09650792.2024.2394933 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“For Dewey, reflection must lead to action but this, while not definitive but a hypothesis, is different from routine action because of the preceding thought; it is intelligent action (Rodgers 2002).”
InfluentialLego Serious Play: hacia la permeabilidad del pensamiento cr�tico
Zabala, M. P., Cilleruelo, L., & Apraiz, E. J. D. A. (2018) · REIRE Revista d Innovació i Recerca en Educació · doi:10.1344/reire2018.11.119183 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The Perceptions and Experiences of Undergraduate Healthcare Students With Debriefing Methods
Arabi, A. N., & Kennedy, C. A. (2022) · Simulation in Healthcare The Journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare · doi:10.1097/sih.0000000000000673 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Ong, W. A., Swanto, S., AlSaqqaf, A., et al. (2021) · TEFLIN Journal - A publication on the teaching and learning of English · doi:10.15639/teflinjournal.v32i1/72-96 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Reimagining New Approaches in Teacher Professional Development
Mahlangu, V. P. (2018) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/intechopen.77155 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Reflection as a social phenomenon: a conceptual framework toward group reflection research
Yang, T., & Choi, I. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10164-2 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Since reflection is a disciplined thinking process with systematic stages (Boud et al., 1985; Rodgers, 2002), there are different levels of guidance in directing reflective processes.”
BackgroundInfluentialUsing self-reflection to support higher education teaching
Myllykoski-Laine, S., Parpala, A., Hailikari, T. K., & Postareff, L. (2024) · Reflective Practice · doi:10.1080/14623943.2024.2376784 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“For professional development to occur, it is important to promote systematic reflection and understand what it consists of (Nel, 2021; Rodgers, 2002; Ulusoy, 2016).”
InfluentialCook‐Sather, A. (2017) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12523 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Rappa, N. A., & Ledger, S. (2022) · Journal of Education for Teaching International Research and Pedagogy · doi:10.1080/02607476.2022.2061339 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Rappa (2019) observed that the simulation experience for PSTs aligns with four criteria distilled from John Dewey’s concept of reflection by Rodgers (2002): PSTs were engaged in a meaning-making process about their actions and reactions in parent-teacher interactions; they were provided with models…”
MethodTürkçe Ders Kitaplarındaki Etkinliklerin Üst Düzey Düşünme Becerileri Bağlamında İncelenmesi
SARİKAYA, B., Yayan, E. H., & YAMAÇ, A. E. (2023) · Türkiye Eğitim Dergisi · doi:10.54979/turkegitimdergisi.1307757 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Yan, S., Sun, D., Zhou, Q., et al. (2023) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-023-09385-y · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“In a broader context of technology-supported learning, reflective thinking has been extensively explored as an effective mechanism that mediates and augments learning and thinking (Ghanizadeh, 2017; Oracki, 2021; Rodgers, 2002).”
Design Thinking and Other Approaches
Crilly, N. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009498685 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Geiser, E., Schilter, L. V., Carrier, J.-M., et al. (2022) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2022.08.017 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Engineering, Reflection And Life Long Learning
Siewiorek, N., Shuman, L. J., Besterfield‐Sacre, M., et al. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--16615 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Position paper: Teaching breaking bad news (BBN) to undergraduate medical students
Karnieli‐Miller, O., Pelles, S., & Meitar, D. (2022) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2022.05.018 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
- Authors
- Rodgers, C.
- Affiliations
- State University of New York (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rodgers, Carol
- ORCID
- Rodgers, Carol
- Venue
- Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2002-04
- Volume
- 104
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 842-866
- ISSN
- 0040-0475 (ISSN-L)
- 0161-4681
- 1467-9620
- OpenAlex
- W2108707473
- Cited by
- 1,848
- References
- 12
- Citations by year
- 2026: 68 · 2025: 81 · 2024: 101 · 2023: 139 · 2022: 119 · 2021: 147 · 2020: 180 · 2019: 132 · 2018: 105 · 2017: 86 · 2016: 121 · 2015: 97 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 69
- FWCI
- 60.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Education › Reflective Practices in Education
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Pragmatism in Philosophy and Education
- Social Sciences › Education › Teacher Education and Leadership Studies
- Keywords
- reflective thinking, John Dewey, reflection, inquiry, reflective teacher education, professional development, assessment of reflection
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