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Around the world, adolescence is a time of heightened sensation seeking and immature self-regulation.
Open accessAbstract
The dual systems model of adolescent risk‐taking portrays the period as one characterized by a combination of heightened sensation seeking and still‐maturing self‐regulation, but most tests of this model have been conducted in the United States or Western Europe. In the present study, these propositions are tested in an international sample of more than 5000 individuals between ages 10 and 30 years from 11 countries in Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas, using a multi‐method test battery that includes both self‐report and performance‐based measures of both constructs. Consistent with the dual systems model, sensation seeking increased between preadolescence and late adolescence, peaked at age 19, and declined thereafter, whereas self‐regulation increased steadily from preadolescence into young adulthood, reaching a plateau between ages 23 and 26. Although there were some variations in the magnitude of the observed age trends, the developmental patterns were largely similar across countries.
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TL;DR
This cross-sectional, 11-country study finds that sensation seeking follows an inverted-U pattern, peaking around age 19, while self-regulation increases into the mid-20s and then plateaus. The broad developmental patterns are largely similar across countries, supporting central predictions of the dual systems model.
Key findings
- In the full sample, sensation seeking increased across adolescence, peaked at age 19, and declined thereafter (linear age \(b = 0.35\), \(SE = 0.15\), \(p = .02\); quadratic age \(b = -0.19\), \(SE = 0.03\), \(p < .001\)); from ages 20 to 30 it decreased significantly (\(b = -2.00\), \(SE = 0.47\), \(p < .001\)).
- Self-regulation increased until the early-to-mid-20s (linear age \(b = 2.60\), \(SE = 0.15\), \(p < .001\); quadratic age \(b = -0.20\), \(SE = 0.03\), \(p < .001\)), peaked at age 24, and did not change significantly after age 25 (\(b = -0.77\), \(SE = 1.40\), \(p = .59\)).
- Country differences were significant for both composites (sensation seeking \(\Delta\chi^2(20) = 46.91\), \(p < .05\); self-regulation \(\Delta\chi^2(20) = 95.76\), \(p < .05\)), but most deviations were differences in degree rather than shape.
- Sensation seeking showed a significant inverted-U pattern in 7 of 11 countries; self-regulation increased significantly with age in 9 of 11 countries, with no systematic age variation in India and Jordan.
Methods
- Cross-sectional multinational sample: final analytic \(N = 5,105\) participants aged 10–30 from 11 countries (China, Colombia, Cyprus, India, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand, and the US); initial sample \(N = 5,404\).
- Multi-method battery: sensation-seeking composite from modified Iowa Gambling Task, 6-item self-reported sensation seeking, and Stoplight game; self-regulation composite from Stroop task, self-reported planning, and Tower of London task.
- Analyses used regression with age and age-squared terms, controlling for parental education and WASI Matrix Reasoning scores, plus multiple-group structural equation models to test country differences; missing data handled with FIML and bootstrapped standard errors.
Limitations
- Stated: recruitment via flyers, schools, ads, and word of mouth meant the authors could not determine whether respondents differed from nonrespondents; they also declined post hoc explanations for unexpected country-level deviations.
- Stated: computerized WASI scores may not be comparable to traditionally administered WASI scores.
- Evident: the cross-sectional design cannot establish within-person developmental change, and measurement invariance was tested only for the self-report scales, not the behavioral tasks.
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with the dual systems model, sensation seeking increased between preadolescence and late adolescence, peaked at age 19, and declined thereafter, whereas self-regulation increased steadily from preadolescence into young adulthood, reaching a plateau between ages 23 and 26.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although there were some variations in the magnitude of the observed age trends, the developmental patterns were largely similar across countries.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although there were some variations in the magnitude of the observed age trends, the developmental patterns were largely similar across countries.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Abstract
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the age effects observed in China, Italy, and the Philippines differed from those of the aggregate, sensation seeking nevertheless followed an inverted-U pattern across age in each of these countries.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
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In the paper
“Self-regulation increased linearly with age in Colombia (b = 2.45, SE = 0.46, p <.001), Cyprus (b = 2.00, SE = 0.76, p = .009), Kenya (b = 1.27, SE = 0.43, p = .003), Sweden (b = 2.82, SE = 0.51, p <.001), and Thailand (b = 2.91, SE = 0.59, p <.001).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
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In the paper
“Results for sensation seeking revealed a significant, inverted-U shaped curvilinear age pattern in 7 of the 11 countries: China, India, Italy, Kenya, the Philippines, Thailand, and the US.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
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In the paper
“In Jordan and India self-regulation did not vary systematically with age (Jordan bage = −0.67, SE = 0.56, p = .23; India bage = 0.72, SE = 0.06, p = .20).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
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In the paper
“By comparison, the age pattern of self-regulation increased until the early to mid-20s (bage = 2.60, SE = 0.15, p < .001; bage2 = −0.20, SE = 0.03 p < .001) without a marked decrease thereafter.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Main Effects
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in the sample reflect developmental change with age.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The omnibus chi-square difference tests indicated that the effects of age were not the same in all eleven countries for either the sensation-seeking composite (Δχ2(20) = 46.91, p < .05) or the self-regulation composite (Δχ2(20) = 95.76, p < .05).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
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In the paper
“In Sweden and Cyprus, on the other hand, self-regulation increased linearly with age without plateauing (Sweden bage = 2.25, SE = 0.45, p < .001; Cyprus bage = 2.36, SE = 0.15, p < .001).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 23
- Probably not a substantial claim. 24
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Consistent with the dual systems model, sensation seeking increased between preadolescence and late adolescence, peaked at age 19, and declined thereafter, whereas self-regulation increased steadily from preadolescence into young adulthood, reaching a plateau between ages 23 and 26.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Abstract
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the present sample, intercorrelations among the measures of sensation seeking were as follows: IGT reward approach and self-reported sensation seeking, r = .03, p < .05; IGT reward approach and Stoplight, r = .04, p < .01; and self-reported sensation seeking and Stoplight, r = .07, p < .001.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
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In the paper
“In some locales, there were small differences between age groups in average levels of parental education, often with relatively lower average parental education reported by the older participants, whose parents had grown up at a time when postsecondary enrollment was less common, especially among women.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In China, Italy, the Philippines, and the US, self-regulation increased during adolescence and plateaued in early adulthood.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Self-regulation tended to increase linearly in Jordan (b = −0.97, SE = 0.58, p = .09), but we did not find age-related differences in India (b = 0.77, SE = 0.52, p = .14).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, although the peak in the composite measure was observed at 19, sensation seeking as indexed by risky driving on the Stoplight game peaked earlier than this, whereas sensation seeking as indexed by approach behavior on the Iowa Gambling Task peaked later.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
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In the paper
“Stroop and Tower of London, r = .07, p < .001”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“With regard to self-regulation, the age patterns of China, India, Italy, Jordan, Sweden, and the US each differed from the aggregate of the other countries”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As with sensation seeking, age trends in self-regulation also varied as a function of how it was measured. The young adult plateau was most obvious with respect to impulse control as indexed by performance on the Tower of London, whereas scores on the measure of self-reported planning continued to improve during the late 20s.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast, self-regulation peaked at age 24, but did not change significantly after age 25, remaining at the same level until age 30 (N = 802; bage = −0.77, SE = 1.40, p = .59).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Main Effects
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in the sample reflect developmental change with age.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Self-regulation increased across adolescence and plateaued in China, Italy, and the US, as it did in general, but the rate at which self-regulation increased and the age at which it plateaued varied among these countries.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“self-reported planning and Tower of London, r = .08, p < .001”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Stroop and self-reported planning, r = .04, p < .01”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, we do note that, although scores on the self-regulation composite did not change significantly with age in India, self-regulation as measured by the two behavioral tasks did show modest improvements with age (none of the self-regulation measures evinced age-related change in Jordan).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
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In the paper
“In many non-Western cultures, especially those in Asia, self-regulation is demanded from children at an early age and adolescence is not a time of exploration, self-indulgence, and novelty seeking, but of buckling down to prepare for adult life (Chaudhary & Sharma, 2012; Chen, Cen, Li, & He, 2005; Weisz, Chaiyasit, Weiss, Eastman, & Jackson, 1995).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chaudhary & Sharma, 2012
- Not checked yetcites Chen, Cen, Li, & He, 2005
- Not checked yetcites Weisz, Chaiyasit, Weiss, Eastman, & Jackson, 1995
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In the paper
“Across countries, participants came from households with comparable levels of parent education, which averaged some college.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Participants
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In the paper
“A small number of assessments (3.2%, N=172) were rated as unusable (e.g., the participant did not appear to understand the questions or tasks, did not pay attention to instructions, or was obviously disengaged); these cases were dropped from the sample.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Procedures
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In the paper
“Reliability for the whole sample on this 6-item scale was α= .63 with reliabilities for separate countries ranging from .49 (Kenya) to .78 (India).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
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In the paper
“Nevertheless, we were able to use these scores to control for any age group differences in general intellectual functioning that might influence task performance.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
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In the paper
“Accordingly, we controlled for parental education in all analyses.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
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In the paper
“This is especially true with respect to changes in reward processing, which are thought to be caused by changes in dopaminergic activity as a consequence of the impact of pubertal hormones on the brain’s reward-processing system (Luciana et al., 2012).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Luciana et al., 2012
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In the paper
“Measures were administered in the predominant language at each site, following forward- and back-translation and meetings to resolve any item-by-item ambiguities in linguistic or semantic content (Erkut, 2010; Maxwell, 1996).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Procedures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Erkut, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Maxwell, 1996
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reliability for the whole sample on this 6-item scale was α = .63, with reliabilities for individual countries ranging from .47 (Colombia) to .73 (India).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
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In the paper
“Changes in cognitive control systems, in contrast, have been posited to be relatively more subject to environmental experience (see Smith et al., 2013).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Smith et al., 2013
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In the paper
“Because of this recruitment method, we cannot determine whether those who responded to recruitment ads differed from those who did not.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Participants
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“Research staff in all countries underwent identical training procedures.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Procedures
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In the paper
“Participants’ WASI scores, because they were obtained via computer administration, may not be comparable to scores from traditionally administered WASIs.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
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In the paper
“Of the final analytic sample of 5,105 participants”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Data Analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 5,105Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, although the correlations between the three components of each composite are modest, as we expected them to be, all three indicators of sensation seeking follow a curvilinear age pattern with a peak in adolescence, whereas all three indicators of self-regulation show a gradual increase between preadolescence and young adulthood.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although scores on the composite measure of sensation seeking in the sample as a whole peaked at age 19, the peak occurred somewhat earlier than this in some countries (e.g., Italy) and later in others (e.g., Kenya).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
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In the paper
“Because some variables were negatively skewed (i.e., latency to first move on the Tower of London) or positively skewed (i.e., self-reported planning and accuracy on Stroop), we used bootstrapped standard errors (3,000 resamples) in assessing statistical significance and computing confidence intervals.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Data Analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 5,105Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, some of the observed differences between countries in the age pattern of self-regulation reflected differences in the intensity with which self-regulation increased with age (e.g., in both China and Thailand, self-regulation increased and then plateaued, but the increase was relatively steeper in China), whereas other differences between countries reflected a distinctly different age-related”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Results > Differences Among Countries
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In the paper
“Full-information maximum likelihood (FIML) within Mplus was used to reduce bias due to missing data on these variables.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Data Analysis
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In the paper
“Per the guidelines provided by Muthén and Asparouhov (2014), approximate measurement invariance can be assumed if fewer than 25% of the parameters are non-invariant for a given measure.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Measures
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Muthén and Asparouhov (2014)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Owing to space considerations, and in light of previous research indicating that developmental trajectories of sensation seeking and self-regulation are quite similar among males and females (Shulman, Harden, Chein, & Steinberg, 2015), we elected not to conduct analyses separately by gender.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Data Analysis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shulman, Harden, Chein, & Steinberg, 2015
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As noted earlier small number of assessments (3.18%, N=172) were rated as unusable by the interviewer and excluded from analyses.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Data Analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 172Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All analyses controlled for parent education and WASI t-score.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Data Analysis
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although scores on the composite measure of self-regulation in the sample as a whole plateaued during the mid-twenties, this pattern was observed in some countries (e.g., China), but not in others, where self-regulation continued to develop beyond this age (e.g., Colombia).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To minimize bias due to outliers, scores on any outcome variable that were greater than 3.5 standard deviations from the mean were recoded as missing”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Methods > Data Analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Generally speaking, self-regulation develops linearly and gradually over the course of adolescence, reaching a plateau somewhere during the mid-20s, whereas reward seeking follows a ∩-shaped pattern, increasing between preadolescence and late adolescence, peaking around age 19, and then declining as individuals move into and through their twenties.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in the sample reflect developmental change with age.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“But given that actual rates of adolescents’ risky behavior vary considerably around the world, it is clear that while certain aspects of psychological development in adolescence may be universal (and perhaps dictated by biology), their downstream effects are not.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The eleven countries studied are sufficiently representative of the world's cultural and economic diversity to support global conclusions about adolescence.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Overall, the results of this study are consistent with portrayals of adolescence as a time of heightened sensation seeking in the face of still developing self-regulation, a combination that has been linked to the greater prevalence in risk taking during adolescence than before or after (Quinn & Harden, 2013; Steinberg, 2008).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Quinn & Harden, 2013
- Not checked yetcites Steinberg, 2008
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Around the world, adolescence is a time when individuals are inclined to pursue exciting and novel experiences but have not yet fully developed the capacity to keep impulsive behavior in check.”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in the sample reflect developmental change with age.
- Rests on an assumption: The eleven countries studied are sufficiently representative of the world's cultural and economic diversity to support global conclusions about adolescence.
In the paper
“We believe that the results presented here provide strong support for this view, a conclusion that is consistent with that of a recent comprehensive review of the neuroscientific and psychological literatures (Shulman et al., 2016).”
§ Around the World, Adolescence is a Time of Heightened Sensation Seeking and Immature Self-Regulation > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Shulman et al., 2016
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Developmental changes and age differences in sensation seeking and self-regulation are linked to changes in brain structure and function that are universal or near-universal features of adolescent development.
“On the one hand, the dual systems view derives explicitly from a neurobiological perspective on adolescence that links developmental changes and age differences in sensation seeking and self-regulation to changes in brain structure and function that are assumed to be universal (or near-universal) features of adolescent development (Spear, 2013).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Normative maturation of crucial structures of cognitive control systems, such as the lateral prefrontal cortex, plays a significant role in the development of self-regulation between childhood and adulthood.
“Still, normative maturation of crucial structures of these systems, such as the lateral prefrontal cortex, is assumed to play a significant role in the development of self-regulation between childhood and adulthood (Casey, 2015).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Age differences observed in this cross-sectional study reflect developmental change rather than cohort effects.
“The current paper presents the findings of a cross-sectional, multinational, multi-method study of behavioral and psychological development during the second two decades of life in a sample of approximately 5,000 individuals.”
“Using self-report and behavioral measures, we investigated age differences in sensation seeking and self-regulation.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Within the broad categories of sensation seeking and self-regulation, constructs measured at different levels of analysis or using different methods are often only weakly correlated, but the overarching categories provide helpful heuristics.
“We recognize that, within these broad categories, constructs measured at different levels of analysis, or using different methods, are often only weakly correlated (i.e., it is common to find low correlations between self-report and behavioral measures of putatively similar constructs), but we believe that the overarching categories provide helpful heuristics.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Cross-sectional age differences in the sample reflect developmental change with age.
“Overall, our findings indicate that the developmental patterns in sensation seeking and self-regulation observed previously in American and Western European samples are found in other parts of the world as well”
The paper relies on this without support.
The eleven countries studied are sufficiently representative of the world's cultural and economic diversity to support global conclusions about adolescence.
“Around the world, adolescence is a time when individuals are inclined to pursue exciting and novel experiences but have not yet fully developed the capacity to keep impulsive behavior in check.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Developmental changes in the brain lead to adolescents exhibiting heightened impulsiveness, which can lead to risky behaviors that may have long-term consequences [1, 2].”
From Consequences of adolescent drug use (2023) · cites this paper as [1]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Nevertheless, the development of behaviours typical of this phase, such as risk taking and sensation seeking, is similar across contexts. 112”
From The Lancet Psychiatry Commission on youth mental health (2024) · cites this paper as [112]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“One reason for an earlychildhood focus in intervention efforts is the concentration of critical periods in neurodevelopment in the first years of life.5”
From Critical Periods in Child Development and the Transition to Adulthood (2021) · cites this paper as [5]
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentχ²(20) = 46.91reported p < .05 · recomputed p < .001
“χ2(20) = 46.91, p < .05”
- Consistentχ²(20) = 95.76reported p < .05 · recomputed p < .001
“χ2(20) = 95.76, p < .05”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Jordan's reported trend has the opposite direction
MinorThe text describes Jordan's self-regulation trend as an increase, but its reported age coefficient is negative, indicating a decrease.
“Self-regulation tended to increase linearly in Jordan”
“(b = −0.97, SE = 0.58, p = .09)”
Citations
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Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Maxwell B., 1996, Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) Technical Report: Vol. I. Design and Development, 1
Cited by
Sorted by citations
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Social Normalization of Young Cancer Survivors: A Scoping Review Using Meleis' Transitions Theory
Lee, E., & Heo, Y. (2026) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.70695
Clarifying the association between digital media engagement and risk taking
Zweben, D., Zaneski, L., Chiu, M., Green, H., Brooks-Justice, J., Dachs, A., Vince, M. A., Olino, T. M., Marshall, P., Steinberg, L. D., et al. (2026) · Technology in Society · doi:10.1016/j.techsoc.2026.103491
Self-citationAmani, M. (2026) · Journal of Psychology and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.12974/2313-1047.2026.13.03
Khani, F., Pourmotabbed, A., Fathollahi, Y., Moradpour, F., Moradi, M., & Azizi, H. (2026) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2026.115475
Teaching General Music with AI: Insights from Developmental Psychology and Social Constructivism
Kang, S., & Yoo, H. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780197824818.003.0022
Yang, Z., Jiang, Y., Hu, K., Dai, B., Xiao, J., & Li, Q. (2026) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2026.2717636
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Developing Minds Are More Than Biases in the Making
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Meradaputhi, K., Dahlan, T. H., Muqodas, I., & Prathama, R. (2026) · IJORER International Journal of Recent Educational Research · doi:10.46245/ijorer.v7i5.1467
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Wojciechowski, T. W., & Waldspurger, E. (2026) · Journal of Child Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1080/10538712.2026.2741852
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Puberty, not age, marks the start of adolescent brain structural remodeling
Chad, J. A., Klukas, O. C., Ghasoub, M., & Lebel, C. A. (2026) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2026.101835
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Metadata
- Authors
- Steinberg, L., Icenogle, G., Shulman, E. P., Breiner, K., Chein, J., Bacchini, D., Chang, L., Chaudhary, N., Giunta, L. D., Dodge, K. A., Fanti, K. A., Lansford, J. E., Malone, P. S., Oburu, P., Pastorelli, C., Skinner, A. T., Sorbring, E., Tapanya, S., Tirado, L. M. U., Alampay, L. P., Al‐Hassan, S. M., & Takash, H. M. S.
- Affiliations
- King Abdulaziz University (SA)
- Temple University (US)
- Brock University (CA)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" (IT)
- University of Macau (MO)
- University of Delhi (IN)
- Sapienza University of Rome (IT)
- Duke University (US)
- University of Cyprus (CY)
- Maseno University (KE)
- University West (SE)
- Chiang Mai University (TH)
- Consultorio Psicológico Popular Universidad San Buenaventura Cali Columbia
- Ateneo de Manila University (PH)
- Hashemite University (JO)
- Corresponding author
- Steinberg, Laurence
- ORCID
- Steinberg, Laurence
- Icenogle, Grace
- Breiner, Kaitlyn
- Chein, Jason
- Bacchini, Dario
- Chang, Lei
- Chaudhary, Nandita
- Giunta, Laura Di
- Dodge, Kenneth A.
- Fanti, Kostas A.
- Lansford, Jennifer E.
- Malone, Patrick S.
- Oburu, Paul
- Pastorelli, Concetta
- Skinner, Ann T.
- Sorbring, Emma
- Tapanya, Sombat
- Alampay, Liane Peña
- Al‐Hassan, Suha M.
- Takash, Hanan M. S.
- Venue
- Developmental Science
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2017-02
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 2
- ISSN
- 1363-755X (ISSN-L)
- 1467-7687
- PMC
- PMC6473801
- OpenAlex
- W2585258968
- Semantic Scholar
- 9ea4eef7f70037a8914130ed70ebf18d36037c3d
- Cited by
- 514
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 82 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 18
- FWCI
- 24.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Developmental Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- DukeSpace (Duke University) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca - Università degli Studi della Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli" (submittedVersion)
- IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Klaus J. Jacobs Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Educational Research Studies
- Keywords
- sensation seeking, self-regulation, dual systems model, adolescent risk-taking, developmental trajectories, cross-cultural comparison, late childhood, early adulthood, age trends, performance-based measures
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Adult, Child, Female, Humans, Impulsive Behavior, Male, Risk-Taking, Sensation, United States, Adolescent Development, Young Adult, Self Report
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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