How does learners’ L2 utterance fluency relate to their L1? A meta‐analysis
Abstract
Unraveling how learners’ L2 fluency performance relates to their L1 is crucial for promoting L2 speaking assessment. Despite the consensus that learners’ L1 and L2 are correlated in several measures of utterance fluency, there have been variations in the correlation strength resulting from methodological differences. The current meta‐analysis aims to present an overall picture of the L1–L2 fluency relationship and investigate the moderating effect of methodological factors. We identified 16 studies with 137 effect sizes and 714 participants. Through a multi‐level meta‐analysis, we calculated the aggregate effect sizes of the relationship between L1 and L2 fluency and examined the potential moderating effect of five learner and task variables. The overall correlation was strongest in L1 and L2 breakdown fluency, followed by speed and composite fluency, and weakest in repair fluency. Based on the results of the moderator analyses, we assume that the relationship between L1 and L2 composite fluency may be affected by L2 learning context, task type, and task consistency. The findings have implications for future research design and L2 fluency assessment.
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L1 individual speaking style is connected to L2 speech fluency.
“Recent studies have demonstrated that L1 individual speaking style is connected to L2 fluency, suggesting that L2 speech fluency does not solely represent L2-specific skills.”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as Gao & Sun, 2024
Gao and Sun (2023) found overall somewhat weaker correlations between L1 and L2 speech fluency measures than previous studies.
“they found overall somewhat weaker correlations between L1 and L2 speech fluency measures than previous studies.”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as Gao & Sun, 2023
Many measures traditionally used for examining L2 speech fluency might be connected to or influenced by equivalent measures in the speaker's L1.
“emerging evidence suggests that many measures traditionally used for examining L2 speech fluency might be connected to or influenced by the equivalent measures in the speaker's first language (L1; for a meta-analysis, see Gao & Sun, 2024).”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as Gao & Sun, 2024
The overall finding is in line with the bulk of L2 speech fluency research that has demonstrated clearer L1-L2 links, and impact of other variables, on speed and breakdown aspects of pausing, while the repair dimension is not equally well understood.
“This overall finding is in line with the bulk of L2 speech fluency research that has demonstrated clearer L1-L2 links, and impact of other variables, on speed and breakdown aspects of pausing, while the repair dimension is not equally well understood (see, e.g., Gao & Sun, 2024;Peltonen, 2020).”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as Gao & Sun, 2024
L1 effects on L2 fluency are subject to factors including L2 learning contexts, task type, and task consistency.
“Moreover, the findings indicate that L1 effects are subject to various factors, including the L2 learning contexts, task type, and task consistency.”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as Gao & Sun, 2024
Open tasks exhibit stronger L1-L2 correlations.
“their finding of open tasks exhibiting stronger L1-L2 correlations”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as Gao & Sun, 2024
Gao and Sun (2024) meta-analysis found the degree of L1 influence varies across fluency dimensions, strongest for breakdown and weakest for repair.
“the findings of the meta-analysis suggest that the degree of L1 influence varies across different dimensions of fluency, strongest effects being found for the breakdown fluency dimension and the weakest for repair fluency (Gao & Sun, 2024).”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as Gao & Sun, 2024
The finding that L1 fluency measures can significantly predict the equivalent L2 speech fluency measures is in line with previous, mostly monologue-based L1-L2 fluency studies.
“The finding that L1 fluency measures can significantly predict the equivalent L2 speech fluency measures is in line with previous, mostly monologue-based L1-L2 fluency studies”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as Gao & Sun, 2023
The study's results have demonstrated the benefits of extending research on L1-L2 connections in fluency from monologic to dialogic (peer interactional) contexts.
“our results have demonstrated the benefits of extending the research on L1-L2 connections in fluency from monologic to dialogic (peer interactional) contexts.”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as Gao and Sun's (2024)
The prominent role of L1 in affecting SP durations might explain the differing findings regarding the breakdown fluency dimension.
“The prominent role of L1 in affecting SP durations (see also, e.g., De Jong et al., 2015;Gao & Sun, 2024;Kahng, 2020), not examined in Tavakoli's (2016) study, might explain the differing findings regarding the breakdown fluency dimension”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as Gao & Sun, 2024
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Peltonen, P., Götz, S., & Lintunen, P. (2025) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263125101289 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The prominent role of L1 in affecting SP durations (see also, e.g., De Jong et al., 2015; Gao & Sun, 2024; Kahng, 2020), not examined in Tavakoli ’ s (2016) study, might explain the differing findings regarding the breakdown fluency dimension, further highlighting the importance of exploring the…”
Influential
- Authors
- Gao, J., & Sun, P. P.
- Affiliations
- Zhejiang University (CN)
- Corresponding author
- Sun, Peijian Paul
- Venue
- International Journal of Applied Linguistics
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2023-07-21
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 276-291
- ISSN
- 0802-6106 (ISSN-L)
- 1473-4192
- OpenAlex
- W4385065724
- Cited by
- 18
- References
- 8
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 5
- FWCI
- 20.19
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Journal of Applied Linguistics (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Phonetics and Phonology Research
- Keywords
- task consistency, task type, second language acquisition
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