Fluency in Second Language Testing: Insights From Different Disciplines
Open accessAbstract
This article considers the construct of fluency in second language assessment and how it might be informed by research in applied linguistics. It briefly describes the way fluency is conceptualized in four language tests, as embodied in their respective assessment criteria, to show where the field is at present. The article then takes into account recent insights from applied linguistics, and from the fields of psycholinguistics, discourse analysis, and sociolinguistics. The article questions the current conceptualization of fluency in language testing, in which it is defined as a concept that should be sought in the ear of the beholder, and where disfluency is only seen as a deficit. Future research should focus on finding ways to ensure that the measures used in testing reflect the ability to talk fluently and efficiently, rather than measures that only reflect listeners’ impressions about such ability, and to show that these can be marked appropriately and reliably.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The fluency measures presented in Table 1 were chosen based on previous studies on monologic and dialogic fluency.
“The fluency measures presented in Table 1 were chosen based on previous studies on monologic and dialogic fluency (see, e.g., De Jong, 2018;Peltonen, 2017Peltonen, , 2020;;Tavakoli, 2016;Witton-Davies, 2014).”
From The impact of L1 speaking style, task mode, and L2 proficiency on L2 fluency: A within-subject study of monologic and dialogic speech (2025) · cites this paper as De Jong, 2018
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for conversation
Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G. (1974) · Language · doi:10.2307/412243 · Cited by 11,350 · see citing works
A theory of lexical access in speech production [target paper]
Levelt, W. J. M., Roelofs, A., & Meyer, A. S. (1999) · Radboud Repository (Radboud University) · doi:10.1017/s0140525x99001776 · Cited by 5,173 · see citing works
The Preference for Self-Correction in the Organization of Repair in Conversation
Schegloff, E. A., Jefferson, G., & Sacks, H. (1977) · Language · doi:10.2307/413107 · Cited by 5,150 · see citing works
Speaking: from intention to articulation
(1989) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.27-1947 · Cited by 5,016 · see citing works
Sequence Organization in Interaction
Schegloff, E. A. (2007) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511791208 · Cited by 4,955 · see citing works
Speaking: From Intention to Articulation
Levelt, W. J. M. (1989) · doi:10.7551/mitpress/6393.001.0001 · Cited by 4,804 · see citing works
SCHEGLOFF, E. A., & SACKS, H. (1973) · Semiotica · doi:10.1515/semi.1973.8.4.289 · Cited by 4,589 · see citing works
(1985) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511665868 · Cited by 4,187 · see citing works
Agreeing and disagreeing with assessments: some features of preferred/dispreferred turn shapes
Pomerantz, A. M. (1985) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511665868.008 · Cited by 3,427 · see citing works
Lakoff, R. (1973) · Language in Society · doi:10.1017/s0047404500000051 · Cited by 3,138 · see citing works
Toward a mechanistic psychology of dialogue.
Pickering, M. J., & Garrod, S. (2004) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x04000056 · Cited by 2,678 · see citing works
Monitoring and self-repair in speech.
Levelt, W. (1983) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(83)90026-4 · Cited by 1,676 · see citing works
Sequence Organization in Interaction: A Primer in Conversation Analysis
Schegloff, E. A. (2007) · Cited by 1,673 · see citing works
Universals and cultural variation in turn-taking in conversation
Stivers, T., Enfield, N. J., Brown, P., Englert, C., Hayashi, M., Heinemann, T., Hoymann, G., Rossano, F., de Ruiter, J. P., Yoon, K.-E., et al. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0903616106 · Cited by 1,533 · see citing works
Lexical access in aphasic and nonaphasic speakers.
Dell, G. S., Schwartz, M. F., Martin, N., Saffran, E. M., & Gagnon, D. A. (1997) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.104.4.801 · Cited by 1,489 · see citing works
Accommodation theory: Communication, context, and consequence
Giles, H., Coupland, N., & Coupland, J. (1991) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511663673.001 · Cited by 1,452 · see citing works
Using uh and um in spontaneous speaking
Clark, H. (2002) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/s0010-0277(02)00017-3 · Cited by 1,235 · see citing works
Psycholinguistics: Experiments in spontaneous speech
Goldman-Eisler, F. (1968) · MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) · Cited by 1,220 · see citing works
Investigating Fluency in EFL: A Quantitative Approach*
Lennon, P. J. (1990) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1990.tb00669.x · Cited by 886 · see citing works
Cognitive Bases of Second Language Fluency
Segalowitz, N. (2010) · doi:10.4324/9780203851357 · Cited by 881 · see citing works
Complexity, accuracy and fluency in second language acquisition
Housen, A., & Kuiken, F. (2009) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amp048 · Cited by 863 · see citing works
Arnold, J. E., Losongco, A., Wasow, T., & Ginstrom, R. (2000) · Language · doi:10.1353/lan.2000.0045 · Cited by 799 · see citing works
Hesitation Phenomena in Spontaneous English Speech
Maclay, H., & Osgood, C. E. (1959) · WORD · doi:10.1080/00437956.1959.11659682 · Cited by 779 · see citing works
Weigle, S. C. (2002) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511732997 · Cited by 779 · see citing works
Segalowitz, N. S., & Freed, B. F. (2004) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263104262027 · Cited by 767 · see citing works
Exploring measures and perceptions of fluency in the speech of second language learners
Kormos, J., & Dénes (2004) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2004.01.001 · Cited by 679 · see citing works
An Incremental Procedural Grammar for Sentence Formulation
Kempen, G., & Hoenkamp, E. C. M. (1987) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1207/s15516709cog1102_5 · Cited by 639 · see citing works
Disfluency Rates in Conversation: Effects of Age, Relationship, Topic, Role, and Gender
Bortfeld, H., Leon, S. D., Bloom, J. E., Schober, M. F., & Brennan, S. E. (2001) · Language and Speech · doi:10.1177/00238309010440020101 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
Testing Second Language Speaking
Fulcher, G. (2014) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315837376 · Cited by 603 · see citing works
Praat script to detect syllable nuclei and measure speech rate automatically
de Jong, N. H., & Wempe, T. G. (2009) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/brm.41.2.385 · Cited by 599 · see citing works
Conversation: An Interdisciplinary Perspective
Scovel, T., Roger, D., & Bull, P. E. (1989) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.2307/327045 · Cited by 547 · see citing works
An oscillator model of the timing of turn-taking
Wilson, M., & Wilson, T. P. (2005) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03206432 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
The development of fluency in advanced learners of French
TOWELL, R., HAWKINS, R., & BAZERGUI, N. (1996) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/17.1.84 · Cited by 482 · see citing works
Jaffe, J., & Feldstein, S. (1970) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Repeating Words in Spontaneous Speech
Clark, H. H., & Wasow, T. (1998) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1998.0693 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Toward an understanding of fluency: A microanalysis of nonnative speaker conversations
Riggenbach, H. (1991) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/01638539109544795 · Cited by 435 · see citing works
Assessed Levels of Second Language Speaking Proficiency: How Distinct?
Iwashita, N., Brown, A., McNamara, T. F., & O'Hagan, S. (2007) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amm017 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Brennan, S. E., & Williams, M. (1995) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.1995.1017 · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Tree, J. E. F. (1995) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.1995.1032 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
Erickson, B. E., Lind, E. A., Johnson, B. C., & O’Barr, W. M. (1978) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(78)90015-x · Cited by 393 · see citing works
Second Language Fluency: Judgments on Different Tasks
Derwing, T. M., Rossiter, M. J., Munro, M. J., & Thomson, R. I. (2004) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2004.00282.x · Cited by 388 · see citing works
Universal Principles in the Repair of Communication Problems
Dingemanse, M., Roberts, S. G., Baranova, J., Blythe, J., Drew, P., Floyd, S., Gísladóttir, R. S., Kendrick, K. H., Levinson, S. C., Manrique, E., et al. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0136100 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Luoma, S. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511733017 · Cited by 372 · see citing works
Speech production and second language acquisition
Sunderman, G. L. (2009) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050802149382 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Kang, O., Rubin, D. L., & Pickering, L. (2010) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2010.01091.x · Cited by 348 · see citing works
How Listeners Compensate for Disfluencies in Spontaneous Speech
Brennan, S. E., & Schober, M. F. (2001) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1006/jmla.2000.2753 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
What makes speech sound fluent? The contributions of pauses, speed and repairs
Bosker, H. R., Pinget, A.-F., Quené, H., Sanders, T. J. M., & de Jong, N. H. (2012) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/0265532212455394 · Cited by 302 · see citing works
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN L1 FLUENCY AND L2 FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT
Derwing, T. M., Munro, M. J., Thomson, R. I., & Rossiter, M. J. (2009) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263109990015 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
A Child's Development of Interactional Competence in a Swedish L2 Classroom
Čekaitė, A. (2007) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00509.x · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Jefferson, G. (1989) · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Chambers, F. (1997) · System · doi:10.1016/s0346-251x(97)00046-8 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Catia Cucchiarini, A., Strik, H., & Boves, L. (2002) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.1471894 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Interactional Competence: Conceptualisations, Operationalisations, and Outstanding Questions
Galaczi, E. D., & Taylor, L. B. (2018) · Language Assessment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/15434303.2018.1453816 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Hesitation Disfluencies in Spontaneous Speech: The Meaning of um
Corley, M. M. B., & Stewart, O. (2008) · Language and Linguistics Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00068.x · Cited by 242 · see citing works
It’s the way that you, er, say it: Hesitations in speech affect language comprehension
Corley, M. M. B., MacGregor, L. J., & Donaldson, D. I. (2006) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2006.10.010 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Listeners' uses ofum anduh in speech comprehension
Fox Tree, J. E. (2001) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03194926 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Fillmore, C. J. (1979) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-255950-1.50012-3 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
de Jong, N. H., GROENHOUT, R., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2013) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716413000210 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Predicting spoken disfluencies during human–computer interaction
Oviatt, S. L. (1995) · Computer Speech & Language · doi:10.1006/csla.1995.0002 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
Disfluencies Signal Theee, Um, New Information
Arnold, J. E., Fagnano, M., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2003) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1023/a:1021980931292 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Galaczi, E. D. (2013) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amt017 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
PHONOLOGICAL MEMORY PREDICTS SECOND LANGUAGE ORAL FLUENCY GAINS IN ADULTS
O'Brien, I., Segalowitz, N. S., Freed, B. F., & Collentine, J. (2007) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s027226310707043x · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Arnold, J. E., Kam, C. L. H., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.33.5.914 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
SECOND LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY AND PAUSING A Study of Russian Speakers of English
Riazantseva, A. (2001) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s027226310100403x · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Linguistic skills and speaking fluency in a second language
de Jong, N. H., Steinel, M. P., Florijn, A. F., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2012) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716412000069 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Does thick description lead to smart tests? A data-based approach to rating scale construction
Fulcher, G. (1996) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/026553229601300205 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Validating automated speaking tests
Bernstein, J., Moere, A. V., & Cheng, J. (2010) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/0265532210364404 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Kahng, J. (2014) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12084 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
Perceptions of L2 Fluency by Native and Non-native Speakers of English
Rossiter, M. J. (2009) · Canadian Modern Language Review/ La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes · doi:10.3138/cmlr.65.3.395 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Pausing patterns: differences between L2 learners and native speakers
Tavakoli, P. (2010) · ELT Journal · doi:10.1093/elt/ccq020 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
The lexical element in spoken second language fluency
Lennon, P. J. (2000) · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Clark, H. H. (2002) · Speech Communication · doi:10.1016/s0167-6393(01)00022-x · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Schegloff, E. A. (2010) · Discourse Processes · doi:10.1080/01638530903223380 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
The Role of Different Markers of Linguistic Powerlessness in Persuasion
Blankenship, K. L., & Holtgraves, T. (2005) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x04273034 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Language as Social Action: Social Psychology and Language Use
Leung, S. (2002) · Issues in Applied Linguistics · doi:10.5070/l4131005054 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Contextual Probability and Word Frequency as Determinants of Pauses and Errors in Spontaneous Speech
Beattie, G. W., & Butterworth, B. L. (1979) · Language and Speech · doi:10.1177/002383097902200301 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
The Effects of Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency on Communicative Adequacy in Oral Task Performance
Révész, A., Ekiert, M., & Torgersen, E. N. (2014) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amu069 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Ginther, A., Dimova, S., & Yang, R. (2010) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/0265532210364407 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Predicting pauses in L1 and L2 speech: the effects of utterance boundaries and word frequency
de Jong, N. H. (2016) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2016-9993 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
McCarthy, M. (2010) · English Profile Journal · doi:10.1017/s2041536210000012 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Doehler, S. P., & Berger, E. (2016) · Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1093/applin/amw021 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Durational Aspects of Turn-Taking in Spontaneous Face-to-Face and Telephone Dialogues
ten Bosch, L., Oostdijk, N. H. J., & de Ruiter, J. P. (2004) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-30120-2_71 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Learner-directed Assessment in Esl
Ekbatani, G. V., & Pierson, H. D. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781410605283 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
The Perception of Fluency in Native and Nonnative Speech
Bosker, H. R., Quené, H., Sanders, T. J. M., & de Jong, N. H. (2014) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12067 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Lexical Access Problems Lead to Disfluencies in Speech
Hartsuiker, R. J., & Notebaert, L. (2009) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000021 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
The role of fillers in listener attributions for speaker disfluency
Barr, D. J., & Seyfeddinipur, M. (2009) · Language and Cognitive Processes · doi:10.1080/01690960903047122 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Descriptive discourse: topic familiarity and disfluencies
Merlo, S., & Mansur, L. L. (2004) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2004.03.002 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Relative degrees of fluency: A comparative case study of advanced learners of French
Towell, R. J. (2002) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral.2002.005 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Kormos, J. (1999) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/026553229901600203 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Native ‘um’s elicit prediction of low-frequency referents, but non-native ‘um’s do not
Bosker, H. R., Quené, H., Sanders, T. J. M., & de Jong, N. H. (2014) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2014.05.004 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Skehan, P., & Foster, P. (2007) · St Mary's University Repository (St Mary's University Twickenham London) · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Litman, D. J., Strik, H., & Lim, G. S. (2018) · Language Assessment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/15434303.2018.1472265 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
13. Fluency in second language assessment
de Jong, N. H. (2016) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781614513827-015 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Hedges, Tag Questions, Message Processing, and Persuasion
Hosman, L. A., & Siltanen, S. A. (2011) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x11407169 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Speech Patterns and Personality
Ramsay, R. W. (1968) · Language and Speech · doi:10.1177/002383096801100108 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Attention orienting effects of hesitations in speech: Evidence from ERPs.
Collard, P., Corley, M. M. B., MacGregor, L. J., & Donaldson, D. I. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.34.3.696 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Peltonen, P. (2017) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2017.08.009 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Bradlow, A. R., Kim, M., & Blasingame, M. (2017) · The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America · doi:10.1121/1.4976044 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Fluency Profiling System: An automated system for analyzing the temporal properties of speech
Little, D. R., Oehmen, R., Dunn, J. C., Hird, K., & Kirsner, K. (2012) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0222-0 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Perceptions of French Fluency in Second Language Speech Production
Préfontaine, Y. (2013) · Canadian Modern Language Review/ La Revue canadienne des langues vivantes · doi:10.3138/cmlr.1748 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
DOES HAVING GOOD ARTICULATORY SKILLS LEAD TO MORE FLUENT SPEECH IN FIRST AND SECOND LANGUAGES?
de Jong, N. H., & Mora, J. C. (2017) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263117000389 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Towell, R. J., & Dewaele, J. (2005) · Multilingual Matters eBooks · doi:10.21832/9781853597688-011 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Speech Rate Determination By Vowel Detection On The Modulated Energy Envelope
Bodt, M. S. D., Dekens, T., Martens, H., Nuffelen, G. V., & Verhelst, W. (2014) · VUBIR (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) · doi:10.5281/zenodo.43864 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Smith, V., Siltanen, S. A., & Hosman, L. A. (1998) · Communication Research Reports · doi:10.1080/08824099809362094 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Towell, R. J., & Dewaele, J. (2005) · University of Salford Institutional Repository (University of Salford) · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Verbal Self‐Monitoring in the Second Language
Broos, W. P. J., Duyck, W., & Hartsuiker, R. J. (2016) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12189 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
développement de la compétence d'interaction : une étude sur le travail lexical
Farina, C., Berger, E., & Doehler, S. P. (2012) · Travaux neuchâtelois de linguistique · doi:10.26034/tranel.2012.2939 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Powerful and Powerless Speech Styles and Their Relationship to Perceived Dominance and Control
Hosman, L. A. (2015) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9781137478382_9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
9 of the 117 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Branigan, H., Lickley, R., & McKelvie, D. (1999). Non-linguistic influences on rates of disfluency in spontaneous speech. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 14th International Conference of Phonetic Sciences (pp. 387-390).
- Fillmore, C. J. (1979). On Fluency. In C. J. Fillmore, D. Kempler, & W. S. Wang (Eds.), Individual differences in language ability and language behavior (pp. 85-101). New York, NY: Academic Press.
- In H. Giles, J. Coupland, & N. Coupland (Eds.), Contexts of accommodation: Developments in applied sociolinguistics (pp. 1-68). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
- In R. Schulze, & H. Pishwa (Eds.), The exercise of power in communication (pp. 221-232). London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Kidd, C., White, K. S., & Aslin, R. N. (2011). Toddlers use speech disfluencies to predict speakers' referential intentions. Developmental Science, 14(4), 925-934. doi:10.1111/desc.2011.14.issue-4 · DOI
- Pearson Education Ltd. (2017). PTE Academic score guide. Retrieved March 28, 2018, from https://pearsonpte.com/wp- content/uploads/2017/08/Score-Guide.pdf
- Street, R. L. (1984). Speech convergence and speech evaluation in fact-finding interviews. Human Communication Research, 11(2), 139-169. doi:10.1111/hcre.1984.11.issue-2 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The Relationship Between Utterance and Perceived Fluency: A Meta‐Analysis of Correlational Studies
Suzuki, S., Kormos, J., & Uchihara, T. (2021) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12706 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Aspects of Fluency Across Assessed Levels of Speaking Proficiency
TAVAKOLI, P., NAKATSUHARA, F., & HUNTER, A. (2020) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12620 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Second Language Speech Fluency
Tavakoli, P., & Wright, C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108589109 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Litman, D. J., Strik, H., & Lim, G. S. (2018) · Language Assessment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/15434303.2018.1472265 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Interactional Features of L2 Pragmatic Interaction in Role‐Play Speaking Assessment
Youn, S. J. (2019) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.542 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Detey, S., Fontan, L., Coz, M. L., & Jmel, S. (2020) · Speech Communication · doi:10.1016/j.specom.2020.10.001 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Yan, X., Kim, H. R., & Kim, J. Y. (2020) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/0265532220951508 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Assessing Second Language Speaking Proficiency
de Jong, N. H. (2022) · Annual Review of Linguistics · doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-052114 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Debate as a pedagogical tool for developing speaking skills in second language education
el Majidi, A., de Graaff, R., & Janssen, D. (2021) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688211050619 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Effects of task type and language proficiency on dialogic performance and task engagement
Ponce, E. E. G., & Tavakoli, P. (2022) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2022.102734 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
How fluent? Part B. Underlying contributors to continuous measures of fluency in aphasia
Gordon, J., & Clough, S. (2020) · Aphasiology · doi:10.1080/02687038.2020.1712586 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Negotiating co-participation: Embodied word searching sequences in paired L2 speaking tests
Rydell, M. (2019) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2019.05.027 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The role of pausing in L2 oral task performance
Ekiert, M., Révész, A., Torgersen, E. N., & Moss, E. (2022) · TASK Journal on Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1075/task.21013.eki · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Lorenzo, F., Granados, A., & Ávila, I. (2019) · Journal of English for Academic Purposes · doi:10.1016/j.jeap.2019.06.010 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Barrett, A., Pack, A., Monteiro, D., & Liang, H.-N. (2024) · Behaviour & Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2023.2186145 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
A comparison of holistic, analytic, and part marking models in speaking assessment
Khabbazbashi, N., & Galaczi, E. D. (2020) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/0265532219898635 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Zabihi, R., Ghominejad, S., & Ahmadian, M. J. (2021) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688211044071 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Designing speaking tasks for different assessment goals
Sasayama, S., & Norris, J. M. (2022) · TASK Journal on Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1075/task.21020.sas · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Assessment of fluency in the Test of English for Educational Purposes
Tavakoli, P., Kendon, G., Mazhurnaya, S., & Ziomek, A. (2023) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/02655322231151384 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Opening the Black Box: Exploring Automated Speaking Evaluation
Khabbazbashi, N., Xu, J., & Galaczi, E. D. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-33-4232-3_25 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Automatic Speaking Assessment of Spontaneous L2 Finnish and Swedish
Al-Ghezi, R., Voskoboinik, K., Getman, Y., von Zansen, A., Kallio, H., Kurimo, M., Huhta, A., & Hildén, R. (2023) · Language Assessment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/15434303.2023.2292265 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
How does learners’ L2 utterance fluency relate to their L1? A meta‐analysis
Gao, J., & Sun, P. P. (2024) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/ijal.12493 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Advances in Interaction Studies
Brône, G., De Beugher, S., & Goedemé, T. (2013) · Advances in interaction studies · doi:10.1075/ais · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The effects of proficiency level and dual-task condition on L2 self-monitoring behavior
Albarqi, G., & Tavakoli, P. (2022) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263122000146 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
ReFaey, K., Tripathi, S., Bhargav, A. G., Grewal, S. S., Middlebrooks, E. H., Sabsevitz, D. S., Jentoft, M. E., Brunner, P., Wu, A., Tatum, W. O., et al. (2020) · Journal of Neuro-Oncology · doi:10.1007/s11060-020-03554-0 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Granados, A., Lorenzo-Espejo, A., & Lorenzo, F. (2021) · International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism · doi:10.1080/13670050.2021.2001428 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Handley, Z. L., & Wang, H. (2023) · Language Assessment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/15434303.2023.2283839 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Ginther, A. (2012) · The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0052 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Complexity, Accuracy and Fluency (CAF)
Housen, A. (2021) · Springer texts in education · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-79143-8_136 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Ajabshir, Z. F. (2024) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2024.104564 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Yan, X., Lei, Y., & Pan, Y. (2025) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12701 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Szyszka, M., Peltonen, P., & Lintunen, P. (2024) · Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development · doi:10.1080/01434632.2024.2387149 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Distinguishing Features of Young English Language Learners’ Oral Performance
Gu, L., & Hsieh, C. (2019) · Language Assessment Quarterly · doi:10.1080/15434303.2019.1605518 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Peltonen, P. (2021) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2020-0030 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Halo effects in rating data: Assessing speech fluency
O’Grady, S. (2023) · Research Methods in Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1016/j.rmal.2023.100048 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Youn, S. J. (2020) · Studies in Language Assessment · doi:10.58379/czpw6475 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Kosmala, L. (2024) · Advances in interaction studies · doi:10.1075/ais.11 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The moderating role of L2 proficiency in the predictive power of L1 fluency on L2 utterance fluency
Suzuki, S., & Kormos, J. (2025) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/02655322241241851 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Authenticity of academic lecture passages in high-stakes tests: A temporal fluency perspective
Nishizawa, H. (2024) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/02655322241262453 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Predicting speech fluency in children using automatic acoustic features
Fontan, L., Kim, S., Fino, V. D., & Detey, S. (2022) · Asia-Pacific Signal and Information Processing Association Annual Summit and Conference (APSIPA ASC) · doi:10.23919/apsipaasc55919.2022.9979884 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cognitive Fluency in L2: The Effect of Automatic and Controlled Lexical Processing on Speech Rate
Olkkonen, S., Snellings, P., Veivo, O., & Lintunen, P. (2024) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1007/s10936-024-10099-0 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
All-Talk: Enhancing EFL Pronunciation With Microsoft Azure Speech Services
Moxon, S. (2024) · ABAC Journal · doi:10.59865/abacj.2024.58 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Huang, S.-E., & Liu, Y.-T. (2022) · English Teaching & Learning · doi:10.1007/s42321-022-00110-z · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Böttcher, M., & Zellers, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1305862 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Fluency profiles in L2 monologue production: the role of underlying cognitive factors
Olkkonen, S., Mutta, M., & Lintunen, P. (2024) · AFinLA-teema · doi:10.30660/afinla.136716 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Visual-Syntactic Text Formatting: Developing EFL Learners’ Reading Fluency Components
Gao, W., Namaziandost, E., & Abdulaal, M. (2021) · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · doi:10.1007/s10936-021-09823-x · Cited by 5 · see citing works
RetractedL2 speaking and its internal correlates
Koizumi, R., In’nami, Y., & Jeon, E. (2022) · Bilingual processing and acquisition · doi:10.1075/bpa.13.10koi · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Yu, W., & van Heuven, V. J. (2021) · New frontiers in translation studies · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-8554-8_6 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Qian, L. (2023) · Assessing Writing · doi:10.1016/j.asw.2023.100758 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Han, C., & Lu, X. (2025) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/02655322251406297 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Simard, D., Zuniga, M., & Hameau, F. (2023) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688221146379 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Survey datasets of VIKKE assessment tool on children's Finnish Sign Language development
Syrj�l�, H., & Kanto, L. (2024) · doi:10.17011/jyx/dataset/94272 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Bettahi, L., Remacle, A., Schyns, M., Etienne, E., Etienne, A.-M., & Leclercq, A. (2026) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2026.1755571 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Factor structures of speed and breakdown fluency in EFL learners’ story retelling performances
Bao, G. (2023) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2022-0125 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Gokgoz‐Kurt, B. (2023) · Australian Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.29140/ajal.v6.n1.1026 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Perceptions on language testing and assessment: A Case study of B.Ed students' in Nepal
Sharma, M. R. (2020) · Journal of Advances in Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.20474/jahss-6.1.4 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Yan, X., & Pan, Y. (2025) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.12724 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Dai, D. W., & Roever, C. (2026) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/lang.70032 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Seo, Y., Dmitrieva, O., & Cuza, A. (2022) · Languages · doi:10.3390/languages7010006 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Oral fluency measures in study abroad research
Mora, J. C., Sehgal, S., & Serrano, R. (2023) · Research methods in applied linguistics · doi:10.1075/rmal.4.08mor · Cited by 2 · see citing works
School Districts’ Assessment of the French Language Proficiency of Prospective FSL Teachers
Merchant, S., Jack, D., & Hermans-Nymark, L. D. (2023) · Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy · doi:10.7202/1099987ar · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Task communicative function and oral fluency of L1 and L2 speakers
Morrison, A., & Tavakoli, P. (2023) · Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/modl.12883 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Teaching L2 speech fluency with learner‑corpus‑based awareness‑raising activities
Peltonen, P., & Lintunen, P. (2024) · International Journal of Learner Corpus Research · doi:10.1075/ijlcr.00040.pel · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Mediating Language Fluency Development: An Action Research Study in a High-School Chinese Classroom
Jing, L., & Apedoe, X. S. (2025) · Theory and Practice in Language Studies · doi:10.17507/tpls.1501.01 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Listener perceptions of L1 speech in L2 and L3 fluency assessment contexts: a qualitative approach
Lehtilä, E., Peltonen, P., & Lintunen, P. (2024) · AFinLA-teema · doi:10.30660/afinla.136100 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Oral Communication Proficiency in English of the Grade 5 Pupils
Pangket, W. F. (2019) · International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.26803/ijhss.11.2.4 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ahmad, S. N. (2021) · TSpace (University of Toronto) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ginther, A. (2020) · The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal0052.pub2 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Peltonen, P., Götz, S., & Lintunen, P. (2025) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263125101289 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“The fluency measures presented in Table 1 were chosen based on previous studies on monologic and dialogic fluency (see, e.g., De Jong, 2018; Peltonen, 2017, 2020; Tavakoli, 2016; Witton-Davies, 2014).”
Testing EFL Communication: Speech Act Theory and the Communicative Approach
Hussain, S. S., & Khan, A. (2024) · Arab World English Journal · doi:10.24093/awej/vol15no1.24 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Fluency across modes: an exploratory study of L1 and L2 spoken and written fluency
Mutta, M., Peltonen, P., Laine, P., & Lintunen, P. (2024) · IRAL - International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching · doi:10.1515/iral-2024-0187 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Khany, R., & Kamalvand, A. (2025) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2025.2490657 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Disfluency doesn’t happen in isolation
Yan, X., Chuang, P.-L., Pan, Y., Cai, H., Staples, S., & Bertho, M. C. (2025) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263125000245 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
de Oliveira, D. F. (2021) · Revista Linguagem em Foco · doi:10.46230/2674-8266-13-6076 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Pragmatic Approach to Fluency and Disfluency in Learner Language
Frobenius, M. (2022) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.332 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Written and Oral Production Development through Primary and Secondary School
Muñoz, C., & Tragant, E. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-32759-9_3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Folb, N. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-4445-4.ch016 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Using deep learning to classify English native pronunciation level from acoustic information
Kobayashi, A., & Wilson, I. (2020) · SHS Web of Conferences · doi:10.1051/shsconf/20207702004
“I am a bilingual because I feel like one” : language identity of Finnish IB-students
Mäkelä, L. (2020) · UTUPub (University of Turku)
The challenges of measuring multi-word expression use in conversation
THOMSON, H. E. (2020) · Vocabulary Learning and Instruction · doi:10.7820/vli.v09.2.thomson
RETHINKING (DIS)FLUENCY WITHIN THE SCOPE OF INTERACTIONAL LINGUISTICS AND GESTURE STUDIES
Kosmala, L. (2022) · Studia Universitatis Babeș-Bolyai Philosophia · doi:10.24193/subbphil.2022.2.03
Cox, T. L., Brown, A. V., & Thompson, G. L. (2022) · Language Testing · doi:10.1177/02655322221114614 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Helal, E. A. (2023) · CDELT Occasional Papers in the Development of English Education · doi:10.21608/opde.2023.298832
Richardson, D. J., & Bowen, N. E. J. A. (2023) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2023.103163
Evaluating English Teachers’ Pronunciation Skills (E-TPS) Using Praat Technology and Human Raters
Ihsan, M. D., & Munir, A. (2023) · Indonesian TESOL Journal · doi:10.24256/itj.v5i2.3867
Speaking Disfluency of an English Major Students at One Public University in Indonesia
Soma, R. (2023) · PPSDP International Journal of Education · doi:10.59175/pijed.v2i2.143
Handley, Z. L., Andringa, S. J., & Wang, H. (2024) · Journal of the European Second Language Association · doi:10.22599/jesla.124 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
How Does Access to L1 Speech Affect L2 and L3 Perceived Fluency?
Lehtilä, E., Peltonen, P., & Lintunen, P. (2024) · Nordand · doi:10.18261/nordand.19.2.1
Morris, R. J., Tibi, S., Alsalmi, H. M., & Latham, B. (2024) · Languages · doi:10.3390/languages9120368
Multimodal patterns in learner presentations – an analysis of slide shifts
(2022) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.332.c04
The coordination of slide shifts
(2022) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.332.c06
(2022) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.332.refs
Um or uh and gaze shift as multimodal chunk
(2022) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.332.c05
(2022) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.332.app1
(2022) · Pragmatics & beyond. New series · doi:10.1075/pbns.332.c08
- Authors
- De Jong, N. H.
- Affiliations
- Leiden Graduate School of Teaching, Leiden University and Leiden University Centre for Linguistics, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
- ORCID
- De Jong, Nivja H.
- Venue
- Language Assessment Quarterly
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2018-06-06
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 237-254
- ISSN
- 1543-4303 (ISSN-L)
- 1543-4311
- OpenAlex
- W2805105683
- Cited by
- 139
- References
- 117
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 36 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 1 · 2013: 1 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 49.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Language Assessment Quarterly (publishedVersion)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › Linguistics and Language Analysis
- Keywords
- second language fluency, second language assessment, disfluency, evaluation criteria, psycholinguistics, discourse analysis, sociolinguistics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
