Cilia and the life of ctenophores
Abstract
Abstract Ctenophores, or comb jellies, are a distinct phylum of marine zooplankton with eight meridional rows of giant locomotory comb plates. Comb plates are the largest ciliary structures known, and provide unique experimental advantages for investigating the biology of cilia. Here, I review published and unpublished work on how ctenophores exploit both motile and sensory functions of cilia for much of their behavior. The long‐standing problem of ciliary coordination has been elucidated by experiments on a variety of ctenophores. The statocyst of ctenophores is an example of how mechanosensory properties of motile cilia orient animals to the direction of gravity. Excitation or inhibition of comb row beating provides adaptive locomotory responses, and global reversal of beat direction causes escape swimming. The diverse types of prey and feeding mechanisms of ctenophores are related to radiation in body form and morphology. The cydippid Pleurobrachia catches copepods on tentacles and undergoes unilateral ciliary reversal to sweep prey into its mouth. Mnemiopsis uses broad muscular lobes and ciliated auricles to capture and ingest prey. Beroë has giant smooth muscles and toothed macrocilia to rapidly engulf or bite through ctenophore prey, and uses reversible tissue adhesion to keep its mouth closed while swimming. Ciliary motor responses are calcium‐dependent, triggered by voltage‐activated calcium channels located along the length (reversed beating) or at the base (activation of beating) of ciliary membranes. Ciliary and muscular responses to stimuli are regulated by epithelial and mesogleal nerve nets with ultrastructurally identifiable synapses onto effector cells. Post‐embryonic patterns of comb row development in larval and adult stages are described and compared with regeneration of comb plates after surgical removal. Truly, cilia and ctenophores, like love and marriage, go together like a horse and carriage.
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Ctenophores are mainly pelagic, predatory animals with a distinct biradial body plan.
“Ctenophores are mainly pelagic, predatory animals with a distinct biradial body plan.”
From Cambrian Sessile, Suspension Feeding Stem-Group Ctenophores and Evolution of the Comb Jelly Body Plan (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
Ctenophores use eight external comb rows (ctenes) for locomotion, densely packed with cilia up to 2 mm long, the largest known cilia among animals.
“They use eight external comb rows (ctenes) for locomotion, these being densely packed with cilia up to 2 mm long, the largest known cilia among animals”
From Cambrian Sessile, Suspension Feeding Stem-Group Ctenophores and Evolution of the Comb Jelly Body Plan (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
The pinnules of 'dinomischids' carry a distally facing row of compound cilia, each about 19-25 μm wide, potentially elaborated as macrocilia as observed in the mouth of living beroids.
“The pinnules carry a distally facing row of compound cilia, each about 19–25 μm wide, potentially elaborated as macrocilia as observed in the mouth of living beroids”
From Cambrian Sessile, Suspension Feeding Stem-Group Ctenophores and Evolution of the Comb Jelly Body Plan (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
The dark stain was identified as a statolith, but is at least an order of magnitude larger than those of extant ctenophores.
“which was identified as a statolith [2”
From Cambrian Sessile, Suspension Feeding Stem-Group Ctenophores and Evolution of the Comb Jelly Body Plan (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
The tentacles in Xianguangia, Daihua, and Dinomischus carry pinnules with rows of compound cilia of a size only observed in extant ctenophores.
“The tentacles in Xianguangia, Daihua, and Dinomischus carry pinnules with rows of compound cilia of a size only observed in extant ctenophores [1”
From Cambrian Sessile, Suspension Feeding Stem-Group Ctenophores and Evolution of the Comb Jelly Body Plan (2019) · cites this paper as [1]
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Ultrastructure of the luminescent system of the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi
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Self-citationThe giant mitochondria of ctenophore comb-plates
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Movements and Co-ordination of the Ciliary Comb Plates of the Ctenophores Beroe and Pleurobrachia
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Patterns of electrical activity in comb plates of feeding Pleurobrachia (Ctenophora)
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Self-citationIntercellular Junctions in Ctenophore Integument
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Primitive examples of gravity receptors and their evolution
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Close encounters of the jelly kind
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Extracellular ciliary axonemes associated with the surface of smooth muscle cells of ctenophores
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Self-citationA novel cilia-based feature within the food grooves of the ctenophore Mnemiopsis mccradyi Mayer
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A novel cilia-based feature within the food grooves of the ctenophore Mnemiopsis mccradyi Mayer
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The physiology of feeding in the ctenophore Pleurobrachia pileus
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Graded responses in ciliary activity of ctenophores compared with the "staircase" of cardiac muscle.
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Ueber Tastapparate bei Eucharis Multicornis
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Ciliary Action in the Internal Cavities of the Ctenophore Pleurobrachia pileus Fabr
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A mechanosensory system that controls feeding in adult Mnemiopsis
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A mechanosensory system that controls feeding in adult Mnemiopsis
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INTEGRATION AND SYMMETRY INBEROE
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The hidden biology of sponges and ctenophores
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The phylogenetic position of ctenophores and the origin(s) of nervous systems
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Independent origins of neurons and synapses: insights from ctenophores
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Reafference and the origin of the self in early nervous system evolution
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Neuropeptide repertoire and 3D anatomy of the ctenophore nervous system
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Oxygen, animals and aquatic bioturbation: An updated account
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Evolution of the bilaterian mouth and anus
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Sponge Behavior and the Chemical Basis of Responses: A Post-Genomic View
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- Authors
- Tamm, S. L.
- Affiliations
- Boston University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Tamm, Sidney L.
- ORCID
- Tamm, Sidney L.
- Venue
- Invertebrate Biology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2014-01-15
- Volume
- 133
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-46
- ISSN
- 1077-8306 (ISSN-L)
- 1744-7410
- OpenAlex
- W2060610706
- Cited by
- 129
- References
- 143
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 6
- FWCI
- 6.07
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Invertebrate Biology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Paleontology › Marine Invertebrate Physiology and Ecology
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic and Kidney Cyst Diseases
- Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Oceanography › Marine Biology and Ecology Research
- Keywords
- ctenophores, cilia, ciliary coordination, statocyst, mechanosensing, ciliary reversal, escape swimming, feeding mechanism, Mnemiopsis, Beroe, calcium channels, nerve net, marine zooplankton
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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