The DOI matches its Crossref record; 80 of the 80 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The Legacy of Western Overseas Colonialism on Democratic Survival
Abstract
Using an original dataset that covers the period from 1951 to 1995, we consider the enduring effects of Western overseas colonialism on the democratic survival of postcolonial democracies. We treat colonialism as a holistic phenomenon and differentiate the relative effects of its legacies with regard to the level of economic development, social fragmentation, and the relationship between the state and civil society. We find that Western overseas colonialism, a factor often overlooked in recent large-n studies, continues to have an effect on the survival of democratic regimes. We further find that the legacy of specific colonial powers has an important effect on survival as well. Unlike previous studies, we find that former Spanish colonies outperform British colonies when colonialism is conceptualized holistically. However, when we break colonial legacy into separate components (development, social fragmentation, and the relationship between the state and civil society), we find that the advantages former British colonies enjoy are attributable to the legacy of the state/civil society relationship. Moreover, we show that at least in the case of former British colonies, time spent under colonial rule is positively associated with democratic survival.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We also include controls for the negative impact of past colonial status (Bernhard et al. 2004)”
From Parties, Civil Society, and the Deterrence of Democratic Defection (2020) · cites this paper as Bernhard et al. 2004
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
The third wave: democratization in the late twentieth century
(1992) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.29-4135 · Cited by 7,981
Laakso, M., & Taagepera, R. (1979) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/001041407901200101 · Cited by 3,643
International Social Science Journal
(1963) · Anthropology News · doi:10.1111/an.1963.4.7.6.1 · Cited by 2,733
On the Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy
Moore, B. (1984) · doi:10.1007/978-1-349-86027-2_4 · Cited by 2,709
Modernization: Theories and Facts
Przeworski, A., & Limongi, F. (1997) · World Politics · doi:10.1353/wp.1997.0004 · Cited by 1,983
The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century
Pierre, A. J., & Huntington, S. P. (1992) · Foreign Affairs · doi:10.2307/20045138 · Cited by 1,766
Capitalist Development and Democracy
Sanderson, S. K. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315063362-34 · Cited by 1,594
States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control
Gerhart, G. M., & Herbst, J. (2001) · Foreign Affairs · doi:10.2307/20050157 · Cited by 1,532
Tracking Democracy's Third Wave with the Polity III Data
Jaggers, K., & Gurr, T. R. (1995) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343395032004007 · Cited by 1,332
Dilemmas of Democratization in Latin America
Karl, T. L. (1990) · Comparative Politics · doi:10.2307/422302 · Cited by 1,028
Research works printed but not linked: 10
- Bollen K. A., 1983, American Sociology Review, 48, 572
- Brown J. M., 1999, The Oxford History of the British Empire, 703
- Cell J. W., 1999, The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 4: The Twentieth Century, 232
- Chirot D., 1996, Modern Tyrants
- Dahl R., 1971, Polyarchy
- Easterly W., 2001, Global Development Network Database
- Kasifir N., 1983, In Local Government in the Third World
- Nohlen D., 1993, Enciclopedia Electoral Latinoamericana y del Caribe
- Tomlinson B. R., 1999, The Oxford History of the British Empire, 357
- Wiseman J. A., 1990, Democracy in Black Africa
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 101–200 of 235
CLIO World Tables: A Global Historical DatabasePreprint
Gerring, J., Mahoney, J., & Lam, N. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 3
Poshakwale, S. S. (2011) · CERES (Cranfield University) · Cited by 2
Essays on Social Distance, Institutions, and Economic Growth
Hansson, G. (2008) · Gothenburg University Publications Electronic Archive (Gothenburg University) · Cited by 3
Does institutional design matter? Constitutional regime types and party system closure in Asia
Lee, D. S., & Bértoa, F. C. (2025) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2025.107217 · Cited by 2
Ethnic Minority Governments, Democracy, and Human Rights
Tusalem, R. F. (2015) · Politics & Policy · doi:10.1111/polp.12125 · Cited by 2
Democratisation and the British Empire
Owen, N. (2019) · Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History · doi:10.1080/03086534.2019.1677343 · Cited by 1
Understanding Comparative Bureaucracy
Peters, B. G. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198297253.003.0001 · Cited by 6
The Administrative Tradition Approach to Public Bureaucracy
Peters, B. G. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198297253.003.0002 · Cited by 5
Brittle Democracies: Comparing Politics in Anglophone Africa
Suhr, H., Sadie, Y., Graham, V., Reinders, M., Afolabi, O. S., du Toit, A., de Pelichy, F. G., & Graham, S. (2020) · doi:10.35293/esi.14 · Cited by 2
Endogenous borders and access to the sea
Sievers, B., & Urbatsch, R. (2018) · Political Geography · doi:10.1016/j.polgeo.2018.01.002 · Cited by 2
Peters, B. G. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198297253.003.0006 · Cited by 2
Sanches, E. R., & Macuane, J. J. (2019) · Cadernos de Estudos Africanos · doi:10.4000/cea.4227 · Cited by 2
“While prior studies explored the impact of colonial heritage on democracy (Bernhard et al., 2004), or the role of authoritarian and transition legacies on party system development (LeBas, 2011; Riedl, 2014; Sanches, 2018a), to the best of our knowledge this is the first large-N study that assesses…”
BackgroundEducation amidst transition: The case of Romania
Giacomo, D. D., & Anthony, F. (2010) · Cited by 2
van Eerd, J. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2411533 · Cited by 2
The Influence of Post-Coup Signals on Regime SurvivalPreprint
Thyne, C. L., Powell, J. M., Hayden, S., & VanMeter, E. (2014) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2462547 · Cited by 2
Ehrmann, J. (2022) · ZPTh – Zeitschrift für Politische Theorie · doi:10.3224/zpth.v12i2.01 · Cited by 2
Disinformation and Episodes of Regime TransformationPreprint
Sato, Y., Wiebrecht, F., Lindberg, S. I., & V-Dem Institute (2023) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4569010 · Cited by 1
“In addition, studies indicate that negative economic growth is a predictor of regime breakdown either through democratization (e.g., Teorell, 2010) or democratic breakdown (e.g., Bernhard, Reenock, and Nordstrom, 2004; Gates et al., 2006).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Historical Pact Making and Civic Associations on Democratic Outcomes
Tusalem, R. F. (2016) · Politics & Policy · doi:10.1111/polp.12166 · Cited by 2
The role of English language proficiency on political socialization and democracy
AlKhuraibet, A. (2025) · Cogent Arts and Humanities · doi:10.1080/23311983.2025.2475638 · Cited by 1
“…one of its integral foreign policies is the advancement of democracy, while the uK had a history of enforcing democracy during the colonial era (Bernhard et al., 2004; Diamond, 1992). academics have long studied the impact of language on cognition, finding that the language a person grows up…”
The Effect of State Capacity on Democratic Transition and the Survival of New Democracies
Kuthy, D. W. (2011) · Digital Archive @ GSU · doi:10.57709/2325784 · Cited by 1
Veneri, M. C. (2011) · Cited by 1
Anomalous authoritarianism: what, which, why?
Seeberg, M. A. (2016) · Commonwealth and Comparative Politics · doi:10.1080/14662043.2017.1230703 · Cited by 1
“Following Bernhard, Reenock, and Nordstrom (2004) and Teorell (2010), the settler colonies are excluded from this set of cases (United States, Canada, New Zealand and Australia).”
BackgroundPersistence and Change in Public Administration
Peters, B. G. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198297253.003.0010 · Cited by 1
Other Administrative Traditions
Peters, B. G. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198297253.003.0008 · Cited by 2
Coppedge, M., Gerring, J., Glynn, A., Knutsen, C. H., Lindberg, S. I., Pemstein, D., Seim, B., Skaaning, S., Teorell, J., Altman, D., et al. (2020) · Varieties of Democracy · doi:10.1017/9781108347860.002 · Cited by 1
Self-citationLee, D. S., Bértoa, F. C., & Adeney, K. (2024) · Political Research Exchange · doi:10.1080/2474736x.2024.2413525 · Cited by 1
“…and Weiner 1966, 9); (b) the non or limited democratic rule by colonial powers often meant that elites and the public were unprepared for democracy (Bernhard, Reenock, and Nordstrom 2004, 229); (c) or ‘nationalist movements had to assume a military character to defeat colonial regimes’ as…”
Colonialism and Development: A Comparative Analysis of Spanish and British
Lange, M. (2006) · Cited by 1
Epistemological lacunae in conceptualising political structure: a solution from field theory
Singh, S. (2016) · European Journal of Cultural and Political Sociology · doi:10.1080/23254823.2016.1204930 · Cited by 1
The Power and Limits of Nonviolent Ethnic Movements
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0008 · Cited by 1
Terrorism and the Problem of Moral Hazard
Bapat, N. A. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190061456.003.0003 · Cited by 1
The European Union as a Distinctive Tradition?
Peters, B. G. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198297253.003.0007 · Cited by 1
The Trauma of Colonialism, European Supremacy, Truth, and Reconciliation
Moreland-Capuia, A. R. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-73436-7_10 · Cited by 1
Peters, B. G. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198297253.003.0003 · Cited by 1
Jeong, T. (2022) · Nations and Nationalism · doi:10.1111/nana.12901 · Cited by 1
Sezgin, Y. (2023) · Law & Policy · doi:10.1111/lapo.12210 · Cited by 14
The Effect of State Capacity on the Survival of New Democratic RegimesPreprint
Kuthy, D. W. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 1
Government Accountability and the Survival of Semi-Presidential DemocraciesPreprint
Schleiter, P., & Elgie, R. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · Cited by 1
Owolabi, K. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1667124 · Cited by 1
Peters, B. G. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198297253.003.0005 · Cited by 1
An investigation of catholic education and the predicament of democracy in Haiti
Francois, R. (2016) · eScholarship@McGill (McGill) · doi:10.82308/7163 · Cited by 1
Okubasu, D. M. (2021) · doi:10.33540/784 · Cited by 1
Achieving Transparency, Reproducibility, and Readability with Hard-Coded Data: A ReviewPreprint
Edgell, A. B., Lachapelle, J., & Maerz, S. F. (2023) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4569520
Gendered Impacts of Colonial Education: The Role of Access and Norms Transmission in French MoroccoPreprint
Allegre, A., Borcan, O., & Brunnschweiler, C. N. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5174149 · Cited by 1
Fortin‐Rittberger, J. (2008) · eScholarship@McGill (McGill) · doi:10.82308/3183 · Cited by 1
Caught in a Civilizational Fault Line? Cote d'Ivoire vs. Ghana
Nordås, R. (2007)
Individual preferences, human capital, and economic development
Vischer, T. (2012)
The First Days of Spring: An Analysis of the International Treatment of Homosexuality
Galvan, M. R. (2013) · doi:10.12794/metadc794925
“Prior research has examined the effects that colonial legacies have had on the likelihood of democracy becoming institutionalized in a state (Bernhard et al., 2004).”
Murphy, L. C. (2011) · OhioLink ETD Center (Ohio Library and Information Network)
The Lopsided Dynamics of Competitive ElectionsPreprint
Møller, J. Ø., & Skaaning, S. (2011) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.1909734
The Role of Violent State Formation in Internal and International ConflictPreprint
Bayer, R. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal
Halim, R. (2012) · UUM Electronic Theses and Dissertation [eTheses] (Northern University of Malaysia)
Economic Organisation and Public Policy Discussion Paper The Reversal of Fortune Thesis ReconsideredPreprint
Bandyopadhyay, S., & Green, E. D. (2010) · SSRN Electronic Journal
Understanding and explaining deviant autocracies : the cases of Hong Kong and Singapore
Fung, S.-F. (2026) · Warwick Research Archive Portal (University of Warwick) · doi:10.82444/warw.33747277
The Legacy of Initial Regimes and Democratization in New States
Denk, T., & Lehtinen, S. (2018) · Challenges to democracy in the 21st century · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-91749-8_5 · Cited by 1
Two Logics of Ethnic Mobilization
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0009
The Logic of Nonviolent Ethnic Movements
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0007
A Theory of Ethnic Cleavages, Group Mobilization, and Conflict in Multiethnic States
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0002
Elite Alliances and Conflict in Decolonized States
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0006
The Logic of Violent Ethnic Competition
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0005
Cleavage Types and Conflict in Multiethnic States
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0004
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0003
Bapat, N. A. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190061456.003.0006
Hegemonic Decline and the Escalation of Violence
Bapat, N. A. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190061456.003.0005
The Economic Origins of the “War on Terror”
Bapat, N. A. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190061456.003.0002
Peters, B. G. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198297253.003.0009
Peters, B. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198297253.003.0004
The Measurement Model and Reliability
Coppedge, M., Gerring, J., Glynn, A., Knutsen, C. H., Lindberg, S. I., Pemstein, D., Seim, B., Skaaning, S., Teorell, J., Altman, D., et al. (2020) · Varieties of Democracy · doi:10.1017/9781108347860.004
Self-citationHolocaust and its Legacy in the Light of the Contemporary Humanitarian Issues
Gromoglasova, E. (2015) · MGIMO Review of International Relations · doi:10.24833/2071-8160-2015-6-45-74-85
Explanatory Analysis with Varieties of Democracy Data
Coppedge, M., Gerring, J., Glynn, A., Knutsen, C. H., Lindberg, S. I., Pemstein, D., Seim, B., Skaaning, S., Teorell, J., Altman, D., et al. (2020) · Varieties of Democracy · doi:10.1017/9781108347860.007
Self-citationCoppedge, M., Gerring, J., Glynn, A., Knutsen, C. H., Lindberg, S. I., Pemstein, D., Seim, B., Skaaning, S., Teorell, J., Altman, D., et al. (2020) · Varieties of Democracy · doi:10.1017/9781108347860.001
Self-citationCoppedge, M., Gerring, J., Glynn, A., Knutsen, C. H., Lindberg, S. I., Pemstein, D., Seim, B., Skaaning, S., Teorell, J., Altman, D., et al. (2020) · Varieties of Democracy · doi:10.1017/9781108347860.008
Self-citationCoppedge, M., Gerring, J., Glynn, A., Knutsen, C. H., Lindberg, S. I., Pemstein, D., Seim, B., Skaaning, S., Teorell, J., Altman, D., et al. (2020) · Varieties of Democracy · doi:10.1017/9781108347860.006
Self-citationGlobalisierung und Weltpolitik
(2007) · VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-90181-7_15
Coppedge, M., Gerring, J., Glynn, A., Knutsen, C. H., Lindberg, S. I., Pemstein, D., Seim, B., Skaaning, S., Teorell, J., Altman, D., et al. (2020) · Varieties of Democracy · doi:10.1017/9781108347860.003
Self-citationDemocratisation and the British Empire
Owen, N. (2022) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003284062-8
Ruling coalitions, policy responses, and authoritarian regime durability
Bulpett, D. M. (2016) · Digital Repository Service (Northeastern University) · doi:10.17760/d20211220
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.003.0001
Bapat, N. A. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190061456.003.0004
Bapat, N. A. (2020) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190061456.003.0001
Coppedge, M., Gerring, J., Glynn, A., Knutsen, C. H., Lindberg, S. I., Pemstein, D., Seim, B., Skaaning, S., Teorell, J., Altman, D., et al. (2020) · Varieties of Democracy · doi:10.1017/9781108347860.009
Self-citationSpending on stability: The relationship between public goods provision and regime survival
Bell, C. (2011) · CU Scholar (University of Colorado Boulder)
Anckar, C. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-03960-7_4
Tumaini Festival: Cultural Production and Transnational Exchange at Dzaleka Refugee Camp in Malawi
Chima, E. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-0641-1_15
Civilian control of the military in new democracies
Kuehn, D., & Croissant, A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198803362.003.0001
Conceptualizing and theorizing civilian control
Kuehn, D., & Croissant, A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198803362.003.0002
Owolabi, O. P. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673027.002.0009
Forced Settlement and Colonial Occupation under French Rule
Owolabi, O. P. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673027.003.0007
Owolabi, O. P. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673027.005.0004
Owolabi, O. P. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673027.002.0006
(2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198803362.002.0004
Conclusions, Reflections, and Avenues for Future Research
Owolabi, O. P. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673027.003.0008
Owolabi, O. P. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673027.002.0004
The effect of civilian control on democracy
Kuehn, D., & Croissant, A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198803362.003.0005
Mapping and explaining civilian control in third wave democracies
Kuehn, D., & Croissant, A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198803362.003.0003
Democratic survival and quality
Kuehn, D., & Croissant, A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198803362.003.0006
Kuehn, D., & Croissant, A. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198803362.003.0007
(2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198803362.002.0007
(2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198803362.002.0008
Comparing Portuguese Forced Settlement and Colonial Occupation
Owolabi, O. P. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673027.003.0006
Statistical Results Using Alternative Measures of Postcolonial Democracy
Owolabi, O. P. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673027.005.0003
Metadata
- Authors
- Bernhard, M., Reenock, C., & Nordstrom, T.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Florida State University (US)
- University of Mississippi (US)
- Venue
- International Studies Quarterly
- Publisher
- Oxford University Press (OUP)
- Published
- 2004-03
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 225-250
- ISSN
- 0020-8833 (ISSN-L)
- 1468-2478
- OpenAlex
- W2008749442
- Cited by
- 237
- References
- 79
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 7 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 20 · 2020: 29 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 13
- FWCI
- 10.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- International Studies Quarterly (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Social Sciences › Development › Culture, Economy, and Development Studies
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Political Theory and Democracy
- Keywords
- colonial legacy, democratic survival, postcolonial democracy, Western colonialism, state-civil society relations, social fragmentation, economic development, British colonies, Spanish colonies, regime durability
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
