Intercultural Communication on Web sites: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Web sites from High-Context Cultures and Low-Context Cultures

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The short video on the Japanese welcome page shows four men in white clothes and caps carrying a massive M and placing it on the floor, after which they quickly bow and hurry behind the logo.

“The short video on the welcome page (Figure 3) shows four men in white clothes and caps, carrying a massive ''M'' and placing it on the floor, after which they quickly bow and hurry behind the logo.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Images of individuals dancing or doing sports are more prominent on HC Web sites than LC Web sites, whereas in LC countries individuals tend to be portrayed in more relaxed situations or situations connoting holiday activities, such as a trip to the lake or listening to music.

“As noted above, images of individuals dancing or doing sports are more prominent on HC Web sites than LC Web sites, whereas in LC countries individuals tend to be portrayed in more relaxed situations or situations connoting holiday activities, such as a trip to the lake or listening to music.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Collectivist cultures tend to emphasize being in good physical shape and time spent with family and friends as their dominant values, whereas individualist societies value freedom and personal time, implying relaxation and time spent by oneself.

It may state two separate claims as one.

On LC Web sites attention is either fully drawn to the product or the consumer, whereas on HC Web sites the product is more often pictured together with an individual, giving the consumer a central place of attention.

“In this way, attention is either fully drawn to the product or the consumer on LC Web sites, whereas on HC Web sites the product is more often pictured together with an individual, thus giving the consumer a central place of attention and never focusing entirely on the product only.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

In HC culture sites, it is highly probable that at least one image of an individual together with the product will be found on the homepage or main pages; on LC sites such images are an exception, saved for career pages or restaurant pages.

“Rather, we can describe the trend as highly probable in HC sites, and expect that at least one image of an individual together with the product will be found on the homepage or main pages of an HC culture site.On LC sites the same would be described as an exception, where such images are saved for career pages or restaurant pages.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

The Indian McDonald's site lacks the definition of the slogan philosophy and places an image of a man running with a boy in a shopping cart next to the slogan, creating a visual connection between the two texts.

“This definition is absent in sites such as the Indian one (Figure 6), where an image of a man running with a boy in a shopping cart is placed next to the slogan, creating a visual connection between the two texts.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Lifestyles portrayed in the images focus on family and physical activities on HC Web sites, and free and personal time on LC counterparts.

“Examples of this were found in the lifestyles portrayed in the images, with focus on family and physical activities on the HC Web sites, and free and personal time on their LC counterparts.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The co-presence of products and people on HC Web sites showed a different strategy from LC Web sites, which were more likely to separate the product from the consumer.

“The co-presence of products and people on HC Web sites showed a different strategy from that of LC Web sites, which were more likely to separate the product from the consumer.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

This form of illustration is not seen in North American and European countries, and in particular Scandinavia, where McDonald's sites are completely static or animation is minimal and images are of individuals in relaxed situations.

“This form of illustration is not seen in the North American and European countries, and in particular Scandinavia, where the McDonald's sites are completely static, or where animation is minimal and images are of individuals in relaxed situations.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Scandinavian sites are tabular and functional in their design, whereas Asian sites take a montage/layer-upon-layer approach in their layout, using many bright colors, fonts, and shapes.

“Whereas the Scandinavian sites are tabular and functional in their design (see Figure 14), the Asian sites rather seem to take a montage/layer-upon-layer approach in their layout, using many bright colors, fonts, and shapes (Figure 15).”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Values expressed in imagery tend to be consistent with those prevailing in the culture of the countries, and in this study those values seemed especially expressive of collectivism and individualism.

“There is a tendency for the values expressed in imagery to be consistent with those prevailing in the culture of the countries, and in the present study those values seemed especially expressive of collectivism and individualism.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Values prevailing in HC cultures are generally tied to collectivism and those in LC cultures to individualism.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: HC and LC culture Web sites manifest different values according to their ideologies.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Collectivist cultures tend to emphasize being in good physical shape and time spent with family and friends as their dominant values, whereas individualist societies value freedom and personal time, implying relaxation and time spent by oneself.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Asian sites use pop-up windows and open new pages in new browser windows, while Scandinavian sites open pages in the same window.

“The Asian sites are also inclined to use pop-up windows, which are practically nonexistent in the Scandinavian sites-compare the site from Taiwan, where virtually all links open up in new browser windows, and the Norwegian site, which consistently opens pages in the same window.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Swiss-German McDonald's site displays images of individuals enjoying themselves with music and relaxation and offers an in-depth explanation of the philosophy behind the slogan.

“The Swiss-German site displays images of individuals enjoying themselves with music and relaxation (Figure 5), and offers an in-depth explanation of the philosophy behind the new slogan: ''You're immediately at the center of attention-your individuality, your everyday life, situations in which you recognize yourself and where you would like to see yourself.''”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Hong Kong site provides an alternative version of the Chinese site entirely in English, revealing British influence on Web sites in Hong Kong.

“This site also reveals that Britain has its influence on Web sites, as well as many other things, in Hong Kong, by providing the visitor with an alternative version of the Chinese site, one entirely in English.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Web sites in HC cultures differ from Web sites in LC cultures in a variety of ways, five of which are outlined in this article.

“The evidence presented here indicates that Web sites in HC cultures differ from Web sites in LC cultures in a variety of ways, five of which are outlined in this article, and probably many more of which are yet to be discovered.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Links to other pages on the Japanese Web site were represented by images instead of text, in contrast to Scandinavian Web sites which were more likely to opt for text rather than images to guide the visitor.

“For example, links to other pages on the Japanese Web site were represented by images instead of text, in contrast to the Scandinavian Web sites which were more likely to opt for text rather than images to guide the visitor of the site.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The Japanese McDonald's Web site illustrates how animation in the form of short videos can provide an alternative to communication through text and still images, creating the impression that the visitor is virtually met by a personal representative of the company.

“Although this practice appears to be relatively rare, the Japanese McDonald's Web site illustrates how animation in the form of short videos can provide an alternative to communication through text and still images, to create the impression that the visitor is virtually met by a personal representative of the company (Figures 3 and 4).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

McDonald's India replaced a group photograph of happy employees with one of a man and a boy.

“McDonald's India may have replaced a group photograph of happy employees (Figure 7) with one of a man and a boy”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The inevitable cultural bias of the author in conducting the analysis should be kept in mind, especially in a study involving a high level of interpretation.

“The inevitable cultural bias of the author in conducting the analysis should of course be kept in mind, especially in a study such as this one, which involves a high level of interpretation.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Hall identified LC communication as the opposite of HC communication, with the mass of information vested in the explicit code.

“Communication in LC cultures was identified by Hall as ''just the opposite [of HC communication]; i.e. the mass of information is vested in the explicit code'' (Hall, 1976, p. 79).”

• cites Hall, 1976Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Hall identified HC communication as involving more information in the physical context or internalized in the person, with greater confidence placed in nonverbal than verbal aspects.

“Nonverbal Communication HC communication was identified by Hall as involving ''more of the information in the physical context or internalized in the person'' (Hall, 1976, p. 79); greater confidence is placed in the nonverbal aspects of communication than the verbal aspects.”

• cites Hall, 1976Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Low power-distance cultures are characterized by flat organization structures, consultative or participative management, and expectation of egalitarianism, especially in LC cultures such as Scandinavian countries.

“In contrast, low power-distance cultures are characterized by flat organization structures, consultative or participative management style, and the expectation of egalitarianism, especially evident in LC cultures such as the Scandinavian countries.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Hall (1976, 2000) proposed that all cultures can be situated in relation to one another through the styles in which they communicate.

“A popular cultural framework was proposed by Edward Hall (1976, 2000), in which he stated that all cultures can be situated in relation to one another through the styles in which they communicate.”

• cites Hall (1976, 2000)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

In low-context cultures such as those of Scandinavians, Germans, and the Swiss, communication occurs predominantly through explicit statements in text and speech.

“In some cultures, such as those of Scandinavians, Germans, and the Swiss, communication occurs predominantly through explicit statements in text and speech, and they are thus categorized as low-context cultures.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Hall (1976) proposed a set of parameters to situate cultures along a dimension from high-context/low-content to low-context/high-content.

“In order to distinguish among cultures, Hall (1976) proposed a set of parameters to help situate cultures along a dimension spanning from the high-context/lowcontent category to the low-context/high-content category (Figure 1).”

• cites Hall (1976)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

HC cultures believe that truth will manifest itself through nonlinear discovery processes and without having to employ rationality.

“HC cultures, on the other hand, believe that truth will manifest itself through nonlinear discovery processes and without having to employ rationality.”

• cites Choe (2001)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

HC cultures are characterized by indirect and cyclical approaches in conversation and writing styles, often communicating without mentioning subjects directly, whereas LC cultures get straight to the point.

“HC cultures are thus characterized by indirect and cyclical approaches in their conversation and writing styles, often communicating without mentioning the subjects directly, whereas LC cultures will get straight to the point.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Hall and Hall (1990) proposed a message speed dimension of fast versus slow messages, respectively tied to LC and HC cultures.

“A final dimension worth considering, as proposed by Edward Hall and Mildred Reed Hall (1990), is that of the message speed preferred by a given culture, i.e., fast versus slow messages, which are respectively tied to LC and HC cultures.”

• cites Hall and Mildred Reed Hall (1990)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Hall and Hall (1990) note a connection between message speed and relationship building, with a person being a slow message that takes time to know well.

“Hall and Hall (1990) note a connection between message speed and relationship building: ''In essence, a person is a slow message; it takes time to get to know someone well' ' (1990, p. 5).”

• cites Hall and Hall (1990)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The collectivism vs. individualism dimension was proposed by Hofstede (1980) and suggested as an alternative to the HC/LC dimension.

“The collectivism vs. individualism dimension was proposed by Geert Hofstede (1980), and suggested as an alternative to the HC/LC dimension.”

• cites Hofstede (1980)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Conversation in LC cultures tends to be less physically animated, with meaning depending on content and the spoken word.

“conversation in LC cultures tends to be less physically animated, with the meaning depending on content and the spoken word.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Gudykunst et al. (1996) identified LC communication as direct, precise, dramatic, open, and based on feelings or true intentions.

“In contrast, LC communication was identified as direct, precise, dramatic, open, and based on feelings or true intentions.”

• cites Gudykunst et al. (1996) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The branding of the product featured on a commercial Web site can influence the design of the site as a whole.

“The branding of the product featured on a commercial Web site can influence the design of the site as a whole.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Power distance refers to the extent to which less powerful members expect and accept unequal power distribution within a culture.

“This refers to the extent to which less powerful members expect and accept unequal power distribution within a culture (Marcus & Gould, 2000).”

• cites Marcus & Gould, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Gudykunst et al. (1996) identified HC communication as indirect, ambiguous, maintaining harmony, reserved, and understated.

“By using scales meant to conceptualize the difference between HC and LC communication, Gudykunst et al. (1996) identified HC communication to be indirect, ambiguous, maintaining of harmony, reserved and understated.”

• cites Gudykunst et al. (1996) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim.

The cross-cultural analysis of Web sites is restricted to those of McDonald's multinational corporation.

“The cross-cultural analysis of Web sites is restricted to those of McDonald's multinational corporation, whose fast-food restaurants are to be found in 119 countries (http://www.mcdonalds.com/corp/about/mcd_faq.html).”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

High power-distance cultures have many hierarchical levels, autocratic leadership, and expectation of inequality and power differences, and are affiliated with HC cultures such as Japan.

“The characteristics of cultures with high power distance include many hierarchical levels, autocratic leadership, and the expectation of inequality and power differences, and are affiliated with HC cultures, such as Japan.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

In high-context cultures such as Japanese and Chinese, messages include other communicative cues such as body language and the use of silence.

“In other cultures, such as the Japanese and Chinese, messages include other communicative cues such as body language and the use of silence.”

Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.

Hall observed that meaning and context are inextricably bound up with each other, and suggested that understanding communication requires looking at meaning and context together with the code.

“Hall observed that ''meaning and context are inextricably bound up with each other'' (Hall, 2000, p. 36), and suggested that to understand communication one should look at meaning and context together with the code (i.e., the words themselves).”

• cites Hall, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The collectivism/individualism and HC/LC dimensions correlate: HC cultures tend to be collectivistic while LC cultures tend to be individualistic.

“The two dimensions, however, correlate: HC cultures tend to be collectivistic while LC cultures tend to be individualistic.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

Monochronic cultures view time as important and tangible and are oriented toward planning and scheduling for efficiency, while polychronic cultures believe everything will happen when it is time.

“Monochronic cultures view time as an important, almost tangible phenomenon; they are generally oriented towards planning and scheduling, so as to promote efficiency, while people in polychronic cultures believe that everything will happen ''when it's time.''”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Some functions in Thorlacius' model were problematic and disregarded because they required cultural insight beyond the author's cultural competences.

“Thus, some functions mentioned in Thorlacius' model were problematic and eventually disregarded, as they required cultural insight beyond the author's cultural competences.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The multimedial character of the Internet is helpful in terms of communicating online in a HC manner.

“Moreover, the current study suggests that the multimedial character of the Internet is helpful in terms of communicating online in a HC manner.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

The bowing representatives of the company communicate an acknowledgement of the visitor, a welcome and an at-your-service statement.

“The bowing representatives of the company communicate an acknowledgement of the visitor, a ''welcome'' and an ''at your service'' statement.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The inclusion of a virtual, personal representative of the company on the Japanese McDonald's Web site can perhaps be considered a reflection of slow message speed in relation to the emphasis on relationships.

“The inclusion of a virtual, personal representative of the company, as illustrated on the Japanese McDonald's Web site, can perhaps also be considered a reflection of slow message speed in relation to the emphasis on relationships.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

A similar approach used by Kurosu and Kashimura on the interface of their cash dispenser (1997) involved an image of a bowing woman to signal that data were being processed.

“A similar approach used by Kurosu and Kashimura on the interface of their cash dispenser (1997) involved an image of a bowing woman to signal that data were being processed.”

• cites Kurosu and Kashimura (1997)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Messages in hierarchical Web sites are likely to release their messages slowly, whereas Web sites with flat structures release their messages quickly.

“The messages in hierarchical Web sites are likely to release their messages slowly, whereas those Web sites with flat structures release their messages quickly.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

The message speed dimension is apparent in the transparency/nontransparency of the site, implying the amount of effort expected from the visitor to understand navigational clues.

“The message speed dimension is apparent in the transparency/nontransparency of the site, implying the amount of effort expected from the visitor to understand navigational clues.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

The Indian site emphasizes a different enjoyable experience from the Swiss-German site, which praises time spent by oneself, for instance listening to music with earphones.

“The Indian site certainly emphasizes a different enjoyable experience from the kind found in the Swiss-German site, which rather praises that time which is spent by oneself, for instance by listening to music with earphones large enough to block out the outside world.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Leonardi (2002) identified differences between Web sites designed for Hispanic and non-Hispanic Americans, and found imagery of groups rather than individuals alone important for successful marketing of mobile phones to Hispanics.

“Similar findings are shown in the research done by Leonardi (2002), who identified differences between Web sites designed for Hispanic and non-Hispanic Americans.There, the imagery of groups rather than individuals alone was identified as important for successful marketing of mobile phones to Hispanics.”

• cites Leonardi (2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

It may state two separate claims as one.

Menus like the Japanese example cannot be considered representative for HC Web sites; in most instances they are supported by other, more LC versions.

“Although menus like the ones described above illustrate how the Internet can provide the visitor with HC communication, they cannot be considered representative for HC Web sites.In most instances, menus like the examples above are supported by other, more LC versions.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

Bucher (2002) documented similar contrasts between German and Chinese Web sites.

“This is consistent with similar contrasts documented by Bucher (2002) in his comparisons between German and Chinese Web sites.”

• cites Bucher (2002)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Many cultural dimensions and characteristics are strongly correlated, so each variable may induce more than one tendency, and the tendencies may imply the influence of more than one variable.

“Since many of the cultural dimensions and characteristics are strongly correlated, each variable may induce more than one tendency, and the tendencies may imply the influence of more than one variable.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

The time perception variable is apparent in the navigation of the site and in the transparency of the site, and whether the designer relies on the user's patience and willingness to explore the site to seek information.

“The time perception variable, which is tightly bound with thought patterns, is apparent in the navigation of the site.It is also apparent in the transparency of the site, and whether the designer relies on the user's patience and willingness to explore the site to seek information.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

The results are based on the subjective interpretations of a researcher from a LC culture.

“First, the results are based on the subjective interpretations of a researcher from a LC culture.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

Marcus and Gould suggested that individualism and collectivism may influence the importance given to individuals versus products shown by themselves or in groups.

“We can perhaps explain this effect by referring to Marcus and Gould, who suggested that individualism and collectivism may influence the importance given to individuals versus products shown by themselves or in groups (Marcus & Gould, 2000).”

• cites Marcus & Gould, 2000Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim.

The Web sites chosen for the study were selected from the relative placement of their countries along the HC and LC dimension in order to most clearly discern the differences between them.

“The Web sites that were chosen for the study were selected from the relative placement of their countries along the HC and LC dimension in order to most clearly discern the differences between them.”

Probably not a substantial claim.

The results should be recognized as representative only of one kind of commercial site until tested against other forms of Web sites.

“The results should, until tested against other forms of Web sites, be recognized as representative only of one kind of commercial site.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

Nonverbal communication such as body language may represent itself on HC Web sites through imagery and animated effects on the Web site.

“Nonverbal communication such as body language may represent itself on HC Web sites through imagery and animated effects on the Web site.”

It may state two separate claims as one.

Evers' research shows that 86.5% of Asians (Chinese, Hong Kongese, Indonesians) strongly liked sound effects, whereas only 64.9% of the Australian control group strongly liked sound effects.

“This trend is supported in Vanessa Evers' research, which shows that 86.5 % of Asians (Chinese, Hong Kongese, Indonesians) strongly liked sound effects, whereas only 64.9 % of the Australian control group strongly liked sound effects (Evers, 2001).”

• cites Evers, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.

HC cultures might have grown accustomed to Western Web site design and adopted many of the same functional menu structures before exploring how communication on the Web can be reconfigured to conform to HC communication patterns.

“It seems that HC cultures might have grown accustomed to the way in which Web sites are designed in Western societies and adopted many of the same functional menu structures before exploring how communication on the Web can be reconfigured to conform to HC communication patterns.”

Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.

Whether animation is used on Web sites is dependent on at least two issues other than the user's belonging to HC or LC cultures: the user's patience, which perhaps can be determined by time-orientation, and the user's technological access and limitations.

“Whether animation is used on Web sites is dependent on at least two issues other than the user's belonging to HC or LC cultures: the user's patience, which perhaps can be determined by time-orientation, and the user's technological access and limitations.”