Cited by 1,285Smoking Behavior and CessationStatistical Methods in Clinical TrialsSubstance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 15 of the 15 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Outcome criteria in smoking cessation trials: proposal for a common standard

West, Robert, Hajek, Peter, Stead, Lindsay, Stapleton, John·2005·Addiction

DOI 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00995.x

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Abstract

Smoking cessation treatment is now integrated into many health-care systems and a major research effort is under way to improve current success rates. Until now results from randomized clinical trials have been reported in many different ways, leading to problems of interpretation. We propose six standard criteria comprising the 'Russell Standard' (RS). These criteria are applicable to trials of cessation aids where participants have a defined target quit date and there is face-to-face contact with researchers or clinic staff, as follows. (1) Follow-up for 6 months (RS6) or 12 months (RS12) from the target quit date or the end of a predefined 'grace period'; (2) self-report of smoking abstinence over the whole follow-up period allowing up to five cigarettes in total; (3) biochemical verification of abstinence at least at the 6-month or 12-month follow-up point; (4) use of an 'intention-to-treat' approach in which data from all randomized smokers are included in the analysis unless they have died or moved to an untraceable address (participants who are included in the analysis are counted as smokers if their smoking status at the final follow-up cannot be determined); (5) following-up 'protocol violators' and using their true smoking status in the analysis; and (6) collecting follow-up data blind to smokers' allocation to trial group. We believe that these criteria provide the best compromise between practicability and surrogacy for long-term cessation and will enable meaningful comparison between studies. There may be good reasons why other outcome criteria would also be reported, and studies that involve interventions with special groups or where there is no designated target quit date or face to face contact would need to adapt these criteria accordingly.

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The Revised CONSORT Statement for Reporting Randomized Trials: Explanation and Elaboration
Altman, D. G., Schulz, K. F., Moher, D., Egger, M., Davidoff, F., Elbourne, D., Gøtzsche, P. C., Lang, T., & for the CONSORT Group (2001) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-134-8-200104170-00012 · Cited by 3,835
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Hughes, J. R., Keely, J. P., NIAURA, R. S., Ossip-Klein, D. J., RICHMOND, R. L., & Swan, G. E. (2003) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/1462220031000070552 · Cited by 712
Interventions for promoting smoking cessation during pregnancy
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Self-citation
Counselor and Stimulus Control Enhancements of a Stage-Matched Expert System Intervention for Smokers in a Managed Care Setting
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A randomized controlled trial of a smoking cessation intervention conducted among prisoners
RICHMOND, R. L., Indig, D., Butler, T. G., Wilhelm, K. A., Archer, V., & WODAK, A. D. (2012) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.12084 · Cited by 40
“We conducted our study in line with Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) guidelines [64], and adhered to the standard established by West in considering all participants lost to follow-up as continuing smokers [65].”
Method
Tailored tobacco dependence support for mental health patients: a model for inpatient and community services
Parker, C. H., McNeill, A. D., & Ratschen, E. (2012) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04082.x · Cited by 40
“Point-prevalence abstinence was defined by selfreport and expired air carbon monoxide (CO) reading at last patient contact, with CO readings of 10 parts per million or lower deemed to indicate abstinence [24].”
Method
Quit in General Practice: a cluster randomised trial of enhanced in-practice support for smoking cessation
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“(22) We also conducted a planned analysis of outcomes for patients with complete outcome data.”
Method
A systematic review and Bayesian meta‐analysis of interventions which target or assess co‐use of tobacco and cannabis in single‐ or multi‐substance interventions
Walsh, H., McNeill, A. D., Purssell, E., & Duaso, M. J. (2020) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.14993 · Cited by 42
“Relevant items from the Russell Standard for tobacco studies were used to assess quality of tobacco use reporting (35).”
BackgroundMethod
Effect of financial voucher incentives provided with UK stop smoking services on the cessation of smoking in pregnant women (CPIT III): pragmatic, multicentre, single blinded, phase 3, randomised controlled trial
Tappin, D. M., Sinclair, L., Kee, F., McFadden, M., Robinson‐Smith, L., Mitchell, A. S., Keding, A., Watson, J. M., Watson, S., Dick, A., et al. (2022) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj-2022-071522 · Cited by 45
A randomized trial of short psychotherapy versus sustained‐release bupropion for smoking cessation
Zernig, G., Wallner, R., Grohs, U., Kriechbaum, N., Kemmler, G., & Saria, A. (2008) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02348.x · Cited by 40
Self-efficacy mediates the impact of craving on smoking abstinence in low to moderately anxious patients: Results of a moderated mediation approach.
Berndt, N. C., Hayes, A. F., Verboon, P., Lechner, L., Bolman, C. A. W., & de Vries, H. (2012) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/a0028737 · Cited by 45
What mediates the effect of confrontational counselling on smoking cessation in smokers with COPD?
Kotz, D., Huibers, M. J. H., West, R., Wesseling, G., & van Schayck, O. C. P. (2009) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2008.11.017 · Cited by 38
Self-citation
Effect on Adherence to Nicotine Replacement Therapy of Informing Smokers Their Dose Is Determined by Their Genotype: A Randomised Controlled Trial
Marteau, T. M., Aveyard, P. N., Munafo, M. R., Prevost, A. T., Hollands, G. J., Armstrong, D., Sutton, S. R., Hill, C., Johnstone, E. C., & Kinmonth, A. L. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035249 · Cited by 37
“This was assessed using the Russell standard procedures [28] counting participants lost to follow up as being smokers and smoking status was verified biochemically.”
Method
The QUIT-PRIMO provider-patient Internet-delivered smoking cessation referral intervention: a cluster-randomized comparative effectiveness trial: study protocol
Houston, T. K., Sadasivam, R. S., Ford, D. E., Richman, J., Ray, M. N., & Allison, J. J. (2010) · Implementation Science · doi:10.1186/1748-5908-5-87 · Cited by 39
“For this secondary outcome, consistent with current guidelines for smoking cessation trials, we will assume that patients who are lost to follow-up, including those who go and do not agree to follow-up, are smokers [34].”
Result
Stakeholder Research Priorities for Smoking Cessation Interventions within Lung Cancer Screening Programs. An Official American Thoracic Society Research Statement
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“Standards for measurement are provided in three existing documents issued by other groups: (1) the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco Task Force (43), (2) West and colleagues (the Russell Standard) (44), and the (3) Smoking Cessation at Lung Examination (SCALE) Collaboration (45).”
Influential
Relative effectiveness of a full versus reduced version of the ‘Smoke Free’ mobile application for smoking cessation: an exploratory randomised controlled trial
Crane, D., Ubhi, H. K., Brown, J., & West, R. (2019) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.16148.2 · Cited by 37
Self-citation
Couples' daily self-regulation: The Health Action Process Approach at the dyadic level
Berli, C., Lüscher, J., Łuszczyńska, A., Schwarzer, R., & Scholz, U. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0205887 · Cited by 39
Assessment of Racial Differences in Pharmacotherapy Efficacy for Smoking Cessation
Nollen, N. L., Ahluwalia, J. S., Cox, L. S., Okuyemi, K. S., Lawrence, D., Samuels, L., & Benowitz, N. L. (2021) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.32053 · Cited by 40
A pilot study of StopAdvisor: A theory-based interactive internet-based smoking cessation intervention aimed across the social spectrum
Brown, J., Michie, S., Geraghty, A. W. A., Miller, S., Yardley, L., Gardner, B., Shahab, L., Stapleton, J., & West, R. (2012) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.05.016 · Cited by 39
Self-citation
Resistance Training as an Aid to Standard Smoking Cessation Treatment: A Pilot Study
Ciccolo, J. T., DUNSIGER, S. I., Williams, D. M., Bartholomew, J. B., Jennings, E., USSHER, M. H., Kraemer, W. J., & Marcus, B. H. (2011) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr068 · Cited by 40
One-Hour Training for General Practitioners in Reducing the Implementation Gap of Smoking Cessation Care: A Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial
Verbiest, M. E. A., Crone, M. R., Scharloo, M., Chavannes, N. H., van der Meer, V., Kaptein, A. A., & Assendelft, W. J. (2013) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntt100 · Cited by 39
The Stop‐tabac smartphone application for smoking cessation: a randomized controlled trial
Etter, J., & Khazaal, Y. (2021) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15738 · Cited by 38
“Point prevalence of smoking abstinence at 6 months (no puff of tobacco in the previous 7 days) The Russell Standard: continuous 6-month (at 6 months) or 1-month (at 1 month) smoking abstinence allowing for smoking five or fewer cigarettes after the target quit date, but no cigarette in the past 7 days [17].”
Method
Medium- and longer-term cardiovascular effects of e-cigarettes in adults making a stop-smoking attempt: a randomized controlled trial
Klonizakis, M., Gumber, A., McIntosh, E., & Brose, L. S. (2022) · BMC Medicine · doi:10.1186/s12916-022-02451-9 · Cited by 40
Abstinence and relapse among smokers who use varenicline in a quit attempt—a pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials
Agboola, S., Coleman, T. J., McNeill, A. D., & Leonardi‐Bee, J. (2015) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.12941 · Cited by 37
The Gold Standard Programme: smoking cessation interventions for disadvantaged smokers are effective in a real-life setting
Neumann, T., Rasmussen, M., Ghith, N. M. M., Heitmann, B. L., & Tønnesen, H. (2012) · Tobacco Control · doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2011-050194 · Cited by 38
Immediate versus delayed quitting and rates of relapse among smokers treated successfully with varenicline, bupropion SR or placebo
Gonzales, D., Jorenby, D. E., Brandon, T. H., Arteaga, C., & Lee, T. C. (2010) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03058.x · Cited by 37
“No uniform standard has been established for when ‘smoking abstinence’ should be assessed [2].”
BackgroundInfluential
Women smokers’ experiences of an age‐appearance anti‐smoking intervention: A qualitative study
Grogan, S., Flett, K., Clark-Carter, D. D., Gough, B., Davey, R., Richardson, D., & Rajaratnam, G. (2010) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1348/2044-8287.002006 · Cited by 37
Tobacco dependence treatment for hospitalized smokers: A randomized, controlled, pilot trial using varenicline
Steinberg, M. B., Randall, J., Greenhaus, S., Schmelzer, A. C., Richardson, D. L., & Carson, J. L. (2011) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2011.07.002 · Cited by 37
Text2Quit: an analysis of participant engagement in the mobile smoking cessation program
Heminger, C. L., Boal, A. L., Zumer, M., & Abroms, L. C. (2016) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.3109/00952990.2016.1149591 · Cited by 37
Day‐to‐day mastery and self‐efficacy changes during a smoking quit attempt: Two studies
Warner, L. M., Stadler, G., Lüscher, J., Knoll, N., Ochsner, S., Hornung, R., & Scholz, U. (2018) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12293 · Cited by 37
Implementation of routine biochemical validation and an ‘opt out’ referral pathway for smoking cessation in pregnancy
Bauld, L., Hackshaw‐McGeagh, L., Ferguson, J., Coleman, T. J., Taylor, G. T., & Salway, R. (2012) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04086.x · Cited by 37
Mindfulness for smoking cessation
Jackson, S., Brown, J., Norris, E., Livingstone-Banks, J., Hayes, E., & Lindson, N. (2022) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013696.pub2 · Cited by 45
“In trials with more than one measure of abstinence, we will prefer the measure with the strictest criteria, in line with the Russell Standard (West 2005).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
A randomized controlled trial to compare group motivational interviewing to very brief advice for the effectiveness of a workplace smoking cessation counseling intervention
Caponnetto, P., Maglia, M. G., Floresta, D., Ledda, C., Vitale, E., Polosa, R., & Rapisarda, V. (2020) · Journal of Addictive Diseases · doi:10.1080/10550887.2020.1782564 · Cited by 40
Effectiveness of culturally tailoring smoking cessation interventions for reducing or quitting combustible tobacco: A systematic review and meta‐analyses
Leinberger‐Jabari, A., Golob, M. M., Lindson, N., & Hartmann‐Boyce, J. (2023) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.16400 · Cited by 39
Effectiveness of smoking cessation interventions among adults: an overview of systematic reviews
Hersi, M., Beck, A., Hamel, C., Esmaeilisaraji, L., Pussegoda, K., Austin, B., Ahmadzai, N., Pratt, M., Thuku, M., Yazdi, F., et al. (2024) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-024-02570-9 · Cited by 46
“…stop smoking interventions have been offered in randomized trials; however, the outcome criteria (e.g. measuring smoking abstinence, point prevalence abstinence, or continuous abstinence) and aspects of follow-up and analysis vary across trials leading to difficulties in interpretation [21].”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The PAS study: A randomized controlled trial evaluating the effectiveness of a web-based multiple tailored smoking cessation programme and tailored counselling by practice nurses
Smit, E. S., de Vries, H., & Hoving, C. (2010) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2010.03.001 · Cited by 36
“A grace period is considered the initial period directly after the intervention delivery, in which quitting and re-initiating smoking behaviour will not be counted as such [33, 34].”
Background
Motivational interviewing as a smoking cessation strategy with nurses: An exploratory randomised controlled trial
Mujika, A., Forbes, A., Canga‐Armayor, N., de Irala, J., Serrano, I., García, P. G., & Edwards, M. (2013) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2013.12.001 · Cited by 36
“This study had a number of methodological strengths, in particular that self-reports of abstinence were biochemically verified by urine cotinine measurements, which is considered a ‘best practice’ indicator in smoking cessation trials (West et al., 2005), confirming a deceit rate of zero.”
Method
The Most "Successful" Method for Failing to Quit Smoking Is Unassisted Cessation
Raupach, T., West, R., & Brown, J. (2012) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/nts164 · Cited by 36
Self-citation
Feasibility of biochemical verification in a web-based smoking cessation study
Cha, S., Ganz, O., Cohn, A. M., Ehlke, S. J., & Graham, A. L. (2017) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.05.020 · Cited by 36
“,(8) outcome measures like the Russell Standard may be implemented without biochemical verification when there is no face-to-face contact with participants.”
Background
mHealth smoking cessation intervention among high school students: 3-month primary outcome findings from a randomized controlled trial
Müssener, U., Linderoth, C., Thomas, K., & Bendtsen, M. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0229411 · Cited by 39
“This follows the Russel standard for smoking interventions, allowing for a grace period of 4 weeks (12-week program) [39].”
Method
Quit in general practice: a cluster randomized trial of enhanced in-practice support for smoking cessation
Zwar, N. A., RICHMOND, R. L., Halcomb, E., Furler, J., Smith, J. P., Hermiz, O. S., Blackberry, I., Jayasinghe, U. W., & Borland, R. (2015) · Family Practice · doi:10.1093/fampra/cmu089 · Cited by 37
Do cravings predict smoking cessation in smokers calling a national quit line: secondary analyses from a randomised trial for the utility of ‘urges to smoke’ measures
Taggar, J., Lewis, S., Docherty, G., Bauld, L., McEwen, A., & Coleman, T. J. (2015) · Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1186/s13011-015-0011-8 · Cited by 35
“For trial outcomes, in accordance with the Russell standard [25], cessation was defined as self-reported abstinence or having smoked ≤5 times in total since the quit date and smokers who were lost to follow-up (n=1,181) were assumed to still be smoking.”
Method
Second-hand smoke and the risk of tuberculosis: a systematic review and a meta-analysis
Dogar, O. F., PILLAI, N., Safdar, N., Shah, S., Zahid, R., & Siddiqi, K. (2015) · Epidemiology and Infection · doi:10.1017/s0950268815001235 · Cited by 35
Effectiveness of the Gold Standard Programme compared with other smoking cessation interventions in Denmark: a cohort study
Rasmussen, M., Fernández, E., & Tønnesen, H. (2017) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013553 · Cited by 38
Illicit drug use as a predictor of smoking cessation treatment outcome
Stapleton, J., Keaney, F., & Sutherland, G. (2009) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntp050 · Cited by 37
Self-citation
Using text messaging to prevent relapse to smoking: intervention development, practicability and client reactions
Snuggs, S. J., McRobbie, H. J., Myers, K., Schmocker, F., Goddard, J., & Hájek, P. (2012) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.04084.x · Cited by 34
“Sustained abstinence rates were measured in accordance with Russell Standard [12] and NHS SSS monitoring guidance [11], i.”
Method
A Combined Smoking Cessation Intervention within a Lung Cancer Screening Trial: A Pilot Observational Study
Pozzi, P., Munarini, E., Bravi, F., Rossi, M., Vecchia, C. L., Boffi, R., & Pastorino, U. (2015) · Tumori Journal · doi:10.5301/tj.5000282 · Cited by 34
“Baseline eCO, ppm Median (range) 16 (0-41) 14 (2-34) 16 (0-41) Mean ± SD 16.”
Method
Effect of communicating DNA based risk assessments for Crohn's disease on smoking cessation: randomised controlled trial
Hollands, G. J., Whitwell, S. C. L., Parker, R. A., Prescott, N. J., Forbes, A., Sanderson, J. D., Mathew, C. G., Lewis, C. M., Watts, S., Sutton, S. R., et al. (2012) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.e4708 · Cited by 33
Which measures of cigarette dependence are predictors of smoking cessation during pregnancy? Analysis of data from a randomized controlled trial
Riaz, M. A., Lewis, S., Coleman, T. J., Aveyard, P. N., West, R., Naughton, F., & USSHER, M. H. (2016) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.13395 · Cited by 33
“7%) at end-of-pregnancy, smoking status was not available and it was assumed that they are smoking [47].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Understanding implementation and feasibility of tobacco cessation in routine primary care in Nepal: a mixed methods study
Elsey, H., Khanal, S., Manandhar, S., Sah, D., Baral, S., Siddiqi, K., & Newell, J. N. (2015) · Implementation Science · doi:10.1186/s13012-016-0466-7 · Cited by 34
“The Russell Standard proposes that biochemical verification of abstinence should occur at 6 or 12 months following the quit date [24].”
BackgroundInfluential
Motivation in substance misuse treatment
Groshkova, T. (2010) · Addiction Research & Theory · doi:10.3109/16066350903362875 · Cited by 40
Urge to smoke over 52 weeks of abstinence
USSHER, M. H., Beard, E., Abikoye, G. E., Hájek, P., & West, R. (2012) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2886-7 · Cited by 34
Self-citation
Physical activity as an aid to smoking cessation during pregnancy (LEAP) trial: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial
USSHER, M. H., Aveyard, P. N., Manyonda, I., Lewis, S., West, R., Lewis, B. A., Marcus, B. H., Taylor, A. H., Barton, P. M., & Coleman, T. J. (2012) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-13-186 · Cited by 36
“Our definition of continuous abstinence allows a total of five cigarettes after the quit day [52,53].”
BackgroundSelf-citation
A general method for handling missing binary outcome data in randomized controlled trials
Jackson, D., White, I. R., Mason, D., & Sutton, S. R. (2014) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.12721 · Cited by 33
Lack of attentional retraining effects in cigarette smokers attempting cessation: A proof of concept double-blind randomised controlled trial
Begh, R. A., Munafo, M. R., Shiffman, S. S., Ferguson, S. G., Nichols, L., Mohammed, M. A., HOLDER, R. L., Sutton, S. R., & Aveyard, P. N. (2015) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.01.041 · Cited by 36
“Smoking abstinence was assessed using the Russell standard (West et al., 2005), which allowed a grace period of two weeks and imputes participants who are lost to follow-up as smokers.”
Method
Treatment for Tobacco Dependence: Effect on Brain Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Density
Brody, A. L., Mukhin, A. G., Shulenberger, S., Mamoun, M. S., Kozman, M., Phuong, J., Neary, M. K., Luu, T., & Mandelkern, M. A. (2013) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2013.53 · Cited by 33
“…data from participants who did not complete treatment or did not have a usable second scan were included and non-completers were considered to be non-quitters (in accordance with the recent recommendations (Hughes et al, 2003; West et al, 2005) and use (Rigotti et al, 2009) of this classification).”
Method
Comparing Drug-Related Hospital Morbidity Following Heroin Dependence Treatment With Methadone Maintenance or Naltrexone Implantation
Ngo, H., Tait, R. J., & Hulse, G. K. (2008) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.65.4.457 · Cited by 33
Reference‐based multiple imputation for missing data sensitivity analyses in trial‐based cost‐effectiveness analysis
Leurent, B., Gomes, M., Cro, S., Wiles, N., & Carpenter, J. R. (2019) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.3963 · Cited by 33
Relative effectiveness of a full versus reduced version of the ‘Smoke Free’ mobile application for smoking cessation: a randomised controlled trial
Crane, D., Ubhi, H. K., Brown, J., & West, R. (2018) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.16148.1 · Cited by 33
Self-citation
Pharmacological and electronic cigarette interventions for smoking cessation in adults: component network meta-analyses
Lindson, N., Theodoulou, A., Livingstone‐Banks, J., Aveyard, P. N., Fanshawe, T. R., Ordóñez-Mena, J. M., Sutton, A. J., Freeman, S. C., Agrawal, S., & Hartmann‐Boyce, J. (2022) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd015226 · Cited by 33
Intervention study for smoking cessation in Spanish college students: pragmatic randomized controlled trial
Pardavila‐Belio, M. I., García‐Vivar, C., Pimenta, A. M., Canga, A., Pueyo‐Garrigues, S., & Canga‐Armayor, N. (2015) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.13009 · Cited by 33
What predicts patient-reported GP management of smoking, nutrition, alcohol, physical activity and weight?
Harris, M., Fanaian, M., Jayasinghe, U. W., Passey, M. E., Lyle, D. M., McKenzie, S. H., & Davies, G. P. (2011) · Australian Journal of Primary Health · doi:10.1071/py11024 · Cited by 33
Effectiveness of intensive practice nurse counselling versus brief general practitioner advice, both combined with varenicline, for smoking cessation: a randomized pragmatic trial in primary care
van Rossem, C., Spigt, M., Viechtbauer, W., Lucas, A. E. M., van Schayck, O. C. P., & Kotz, D. (2017) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.13927 · Cited by 35
“Prolonged abstinence was defined as self-reported prolonged abstinence with a maximum of five cigarettes after a grace period of 9 weeks, confirmed biochemically by exhaled carbon monoxide [CO 10 parts per million], as defined in the Russell Standard [23].”
Method
Cessation of Smoking Trial in the Emergency Department (COSTED): a multicentre randomised controlled trial
Pope, I., Clark, L., Clark, A., Ward, E., Belderson, P., Stirling, S., Parrott, S., Li, J., Coats, T., Bauld, L., et al. (2024) · Emergency Medicine Journal · doi:10.1136/emermed-2023-213824 · Cited by 32
Efficacy of Emergency Department-Initiated Tobacco Control--Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials
Rabe, G. L., Wellmann, J., Bagos, P. G., Busch, M. A., Hense, H. W., Spies, C., Weiß-Gerlach, E., McCarthy, W. J., Arizaga, M. J. G., & Neuner, B. (2012) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/nts212 · Cited by 32
Smoking Cessation Intervention for severe Mental Ill Health Trial (SCIMITAR): a pilot randomised control trial of the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a bespoke smoking cessation service
Peckham, E. J., Man, M., Mitchell, N., Li, J., Becque, T., Knowles, S. E., Bradshaw, T., Planner, C., Parrott, S., Michie, S., et al. (2015) · Health Technology Assessment · doi:10.3310/hta19250 · Cited by 33
Developing anti-tobacco messages for Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples: evidence from a national cross-sectional survey
Gould, G. S., Watt, K., Stevenson, L., McEwen, A., Cadet‐James, Y., & CLOUGH, A. R. (2014) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-250 · Cited by 32
“Evaluations to consider include formalised pre-tests, process evaluation, campaign awareness and recall, community involvement and reach, changes in knowledge, attitudes and beliefs, behaviour change (with standardised and/or validated quit rates [42]), smoke-free behaviours, and access to cessation services.”
Background
Peri‐operative tobacco cessation interventions: a systematic review and meta‐analysis
Harrogate, S., Barnes, J., Thomas, K. H., Isted, A., Kunst, G., Gupta, S. K., Rudd, S., Banerjee, T., Hinchliffe, R. J., & Mouton, R. (2023) · Anaesthesia · doi:10.1111/anae.16120 · Cited by 37
“It is convention that, in clinical trials of smoking cessation, any participants lost to follow-up are assumed to still be smoking [36].”
Background
A Randomized Controlled Trial of Group Intervention Based on Social Cognitive Theory for Smoking Cessation in China
Zheng, P., Guo, F., Chen, Y., Fu, Y., Ye, T., & Fu, H. (2007) · Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.2188/jea.17.147 · Cited by 32
Effectiveness of intensive group and individual interventions for smoking cessation in primary health care settings: a randomized trial
Ramos, M., Ripoll, J., Estrades, T., Socias, I. M., Fe, A., Duro, R., González, M. J., & Servera, M. (2010) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-89 · Cited by 32
“Although continuous abstinence is considered the gold standard outcome for smoking cessation [29], some studies have shown that smokers do not lie about their smoking status when asked about it directly [30].”
Background
Lack of association of DRD2 rs1800497 (Taq1A) polymorphism with smoking cessation in a nicotine replacement therapy randomized trial
Munafo, M. R., Johnstone, E. C., Murphy, M. F. G., & Aveyard, P. N. (2009) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntp007 · Cited by 32
Nicotinic receptor partial agonists as novel compounds for the treatment of smoking cessation
Tutka, P. (2008) · Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs · doi:10.1517/13543784.17.10.1473 · Cited by 32
Long-Term Effectiveness of a Clinician-Assisted Digital Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Intervention for Smoking Cessation: Secondary Outcomes From a Randomized Controlled Trial
Webb, J., Peerbux, S., Ang, A., Siddiqui, S., Sherwani, Y., Ahmed, M., MacRae, H., Puri, H., Majeed, A., & Glasner, S. V. (2022) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntac113 · Cited by 31
Promoting smoking cessation in Pakistani and Bangladeshi men in the UK: pilot cluster randomised controlled trial of trained community outreach workers
Begh, R. A., Aveyard, P. N., Upton, P., Bhopal, R. S., White, M. J., Amos, A., Prescott, R. J., Bedi, R., Barton, P. M., Fletcher, M. J., et al. (2011) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-12-197 · Cited by 33
“using intentionto-treat and biochemical validation [35]).”
Improving health providers smoking cessation care in pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Bar‐Zeev, Y., Bonevski, B., Lim, L. L., Twyman, L., Skelton, E., Gruppetta, M., Palazzi, K. L., Oldmeadow, C. J., & Gould, G. S. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.01.002 · Cited by 31
Effectiveness of an Opt-Out Electronic Heath Record-Based Tobacco Treatment Consult Service at an Urban Safety Net Hospital
Herbst, N. P., Wiener, R. S., Helm, E. D., O’Donnell, C., Fitzgerald, C. A., Wong, C., Bulekova, K., Waite, M., Mishuris, R. G., & Kathuria, H. (2020) · CHEST Journal · doi:10.1016/j.chest.2020.04.062 · Cited by 31
Behavioural programmes for cigarette smoking cessation: investigating interactions between behavioural, motivational and delivery components in a systematic review and component network meta‐analysis
Hartmann‐Boyce, J., Ordóñez‐Mena, J. M., Livingstone‐Banks, J., Fanshawe, T. R., Lindson, N., Freeman, S. C., Sutton, A. J., Theodoulou, A., & Aveyard, P. N. (2022) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15791 · Cited by 31
Effectiveness of two intensive treatment methods for smoking cessation and relapse prevention in patients with coronary heart disease: study protocol and baseline description
Berndt, N. C., Bolman, C. A. W., Lechner, L., Mudde, A. N., Verheugt, F. W. A., & de Vries, H. (2012) · BMC Cardiovascular Disorders · doi:10.1186/1471-2261-12-33 · Cited by 31
“Intention to treat analyses will be applied [88] and smoking status is verified at T2 by a saliva sample.”
Method
A cluster-randomized effectiveness trial of smoking cessation modified for at-risk smoker subgroups
Batra, A., Collins, S. E., Schröter, M., Eck, S., Torchalla, I., & Buchkremer, G. (2010) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2009.08.003 · Cited by 31
Prospective, cluster-randomized trial to implement the Ottawa model for smoking cessation in diabetes education programs in Ontario, Canada
Reid, R. D., Malcolm, J., Wooding, E., Geertsma, A., Aitken, D., Arbeau, D., Blanchard, C., Gagnier, J.-A., Gupta, A., Mullen, K.-A., et al. (2018) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/dc17-1809 · Cited by 30
Multidimensional smoker profiles and their prediction of smoking following a pharmacobehavioral intervention
Batra, A., Collins, S. E., Torchalla, I., Schröter, M., & Buchkremer, G. (2008) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2007.08.006 · Cited by 36
Waterpipe tobacco smoking: The critical need for cessation treatment
Ward, K. D., Siddiqi, K., Ahluwalia, J. S., Alexander, A. C., & Asfar, T. (2015) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2015.05.029 · Cited by 30
A Review of the Evidence on Technology‐Based Interventions for the Treatment of Tobacco Dependence in College Health
Brown, J. (2013) · Worldviews on Evidence-Based Nursing · doi:10.1111/wvn.12000 · Cited by 30
Predictors of Success for Smoking Cessation at the Workplace: A Longitudinal Study
Stolz, D., Scherr, A., Seiffert, B., Kuster, M., Meyer, A., Fagerström, K., & Tamm, M. (2013) · Respiration · doi:10.1159/000346646 · Cited by 30
Integrating smoking cessation into routine care in hospitals—a randomized controlled trial
Thomas, D., Abramson, M. J., Bonevski, B., Taylor, S. E., Poole, S. G., Paul, E. M., Weeks, G., Dooley, M., & George, J. (2015) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.13239 · Cited by 30
Training pharmacists in the stage-of-change model of smoking cessation and motivational interviewing: A randomized controlled trial
Caponnetto, P., DiPiazza, J., Aiello, M. R., & Polosa, R. (2017) · Health Psychology Open · doi:10.1177/2055102917736429 · Cited by 30
“Success rates were measured as the 24-week (24WQ) success rate (West et al., 2005).”
Method
Using Nicotine Gum to Assist Nondaily Smokers in Quitting: A Randomized Clinical Trial
Shiffman, S. S., Scholl, S. M., Mao, J. M., Ferguson, S. G., Hedeker, D., Primack, B. A., & Tindle, H. A. (2019) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntz090 · Cited by 29
How Financial Incentives Increase Smoking Cessation: A Two-Level Path Analysis
van den Brand, F. A., Candel, M. J. J. M., Nagelhout, G. E., Winkens, B., & van Schayck, O. C. P. (2020) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntaa024 · Cited by 30
Sensory experiences and cues among E-cigarette users
DiPiazza, J., Caponnetto, P., Askin, G., Christos, P. J., Maglia, M. G., Gautam, R., Roche, S., & Polosa, R. (2020) · Harm Reduction Journal · doi:10.1186/s12954-020-00420-0 · Cited by 33
Prevalence of psychoactive drug use in patients hospitalized for acute cardiac events: Rationale and design of the ADDICT-ICCU trial, from the Emergency and Acute Cardiovascular Care Working Group and the National College of Cardiologists in Training of the French Society of Cardiology
Dillinger, J., Pezel, T., Fauvel, C., Delmas, C., Schurtz, G., Trimaille, A., Gerbaud, É., Roule, V., Dib, J.-C., Boccara, A., et al. (2022) · Archives of cardiovascular diseases · doi:10.1016/j.acvd.2022.05.012 · Cited by 30
Assessment of a Text Message–Based Smoking Cessation Intervention for Adult Smokers in China
Lin, H., Liu, Y., Zhang, H., Zhu, Z., Zhang, X., & Chang, C. (2023) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.0301 · Cited by 30
Nicobrevin for smoking cessation
Stead, L. F., & Lancaster, T. (2006) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd005990 · Cited by 30
Self-citation
A small world on feet of clay? A comparison of empirical small-world studies against best-practice criteria
Schnettler, S. (2009) · Social Networks · doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2008.12.005 · Cited by 30
Randomized Controlled Trial of an Interactive Internet Smoking Cessation Program with Long-Term Follow-up
Seidman, D. F., Westmaas, J. L., Goldband, S., Rabius, V., Katkin, E. S., Pike, K. J., Wiatrek, D., & Sloan, R. P. (2010) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-010-9167-7 · Cited by 29
“Our analyses also followed the conservative intent-to-treat protocol whereby non-respondents are coded as not abstinent [40].”
BackgroundMethod
The Nicotine Metabolite Ratio in Pregnancy Measured by trans-3′-Hydroxycotinine to Cotinine Ratio: Characteristics and Relationship With Smoking Cessation: Table 1.
Vaz, L. R., Coleman, T., Cooper, S., Aveyard, P., & Leonardi-Bee, J. (2015) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntu342 · Cited by 27
A pilot study combining individual-based smoking cessation counseling, pharmacotherapy, and dental hygiene intervention
Gonseth, S., Abarca, M., Madrid, C., & Cornuz, J. (2010) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-348 · Cited by 29
“Continuous smoking abstinence was defined as self-reporting of continuous smoking abstinence from the 8-week visit to the 6-month visit, and biochemical validation by an expired carbon monoxide rate less than 10 ppm [22].”
BackgroundMethod
A Single-Arm, Open-Label, Pilot, and Feasibility Study of a High Nicotine Strength E-Cigarette Intervention for Smoking Cessation or Reduction for People With Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders Who Smoke Cigarettes
Caponnetto, P., DiPiazza, J., Kim, J. J., Maglia, M. G., & Polosa, R. (2021) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntab005 · Cited by 28
“33 Inclusion criteria were: 1.”
A SMARTTT approach to Treating Tobacco use disorder in persons with HIV (SMARTTT): Rationale and design for a hybrid type 1 effectiveness-implementation study
Edelman, E. J., Dziura, J. D., Deng, Y., Bold, K. W., Murphy, S. M., Porter, E., Sigel, K. M., Yager, J. E., Ledgerwood, D. M., & Bernstein, S. L. (2021) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2021.106379 · Cited by 29
Effectiveness of a Dyadic Buddy App for Smoking Cessation: Randomized Controlled Trial
Schwaninger, P., Berli, C., Scholz, U., & Lüscher, J. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/27162 · Cited by 27
“We echo the conclusion of the authors that more RCTs with long-term follow-ups (at least 6 months; Russell Standard [21]) are needed to provide evidence on the effectiveness of smoking cessation apps [17].”
Assessing and minimizing risk of bias in randomized controlled trials of tobacco cessation interventions: Guidance from the Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group
Hartmann‐Boyce, J., & Lindson, N. (2023) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.16220 · Cited by 29
Effectiveness of proactive quitline counselling for smoking parents recruited through primary schools: results of a randomized controlled trial
Schuck, K., Bricker, J. B., Otten, R., Kleinjan, M., Brandon, T. H., & Engels, R. C. M. E. (2014) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.12485 · Cited by 29
Clinical trial on the efficacy of exhaled carbon monoxide measurement in smoking cessation in primary health care
Ripoll, J., Girauta, H., Ramos, M., Bombardó, D. M., Pastor, A., Alvarez-Ossorio, C., López, L. G., Esteva, M., García, E., Uréndez, A., et al. (2012) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-12-322 · Cited by 29
“The measurement of exhaled CO is also the preferred measurement to confirm tobacco abstinence [18].”
Background
Uptake and efficacy of a systematic intensive smoking cessation intervention using motivational interviewing for smokers hospitalised for an acute coronary syndrome: a multicentre before–after study with parallel group comparisons
Auer, R., Gencer, B., Tango, R. C., Nanchen, D., Matter, C. M., Lüscher, T. F., Windecker, S., Mach, F., Cornuz, J., Humair, J., et al. (2016) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011520 · Cited by 29
Lessons learned from unsuccessful use of personal carbon monoxide monitors to remotely assess abstinence in a pragmatic trial of a smartphone stop smoking app – A secondary analysis
Herbeć, A., Brown, J., Shahab, L., & West, R. (2018) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2018.07.003 · Cited by 29
“6%) of the returned readings were below 10 ppm (meeting the Russel Standard criteria for abstinence (West et al., 2005)), and eight (53.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citation

Authors: West, R., Hajek, P., Stead, L., & Stapleton, J.
Affiliations: University College London (GB)
University of Oxford (GB)
King's College London (GB)
Corresponding author: West, Robert
ORCID: West, Robert
Venue: Addiction
Publisher: Wiley
Published: 2005-03
Volume: 100
Issue: 3
Pages: 299-303
ISSN: 0965-2140 (ISSN-L)
1360-0443
DOI: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00995.x
OpenAlex: W2138106394
Cited by: 1,285
References: 15
Citations by year: 2026: 38 · 2025: 68 · 2024: 84 · 2023: 77 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 69 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 85 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 84 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 77 · 2014: 67 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 56
FWCI: 17.98
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations: Addiction (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
Keywords: smoking cessation, outcome criteria, cessation aids, smoking abstinence, intention-to-treat analysis, grace period, trial comparability
MeSH terms: Humans, Research Design, Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic, Smoking Cessation, Outcome Assessment, Health Care

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Outcome criteria in smoking cessation trials: proposal for a common standard

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