The DOI matches its Crossref record; 19 of the 19 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Increasing Retention Without Increasing Study Time
Open accessAbstract
Because people forget much of what they learn, students could benefit from learning strategies that yield long-lasting knowledge. Yet surprisingly little is known about how long-term retention is most efficiently achieved. Here we examine how retention is affected by two variables: the duration of a study session and the temporal distribution of study time across multiple sessions. Our results suggest that a single session devoted to the study of some material should continue long enough to ensure that mastery is achieved but that immediate further study of the same material is an inefficient use of time. Our data also show that the benefit of distributing a fixed amount of study time across two study sessions—the spacing effect—depends jointly on the interval between study sessions and the interval between study and test. We discuss the practical implications of both findings, especially in regard to mathematics learning.
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“The optimal ratio of spacing and retention interval should be 10-30%.”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT: AN EFL CLASSROOM STUDY (2022) · cites this paper as Rohrer & Pashler, 2007
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“According to cognitive psychologists (Cepeda et al., 2008;Rohrer & Pashler, 2007), the optimal spacing depends on the retention interval (i.e., the timing of delayed posttest).”
From MASSED TASK REPETITION IS A DOUBLE-EDGED SWORD FOR FLUENCY DEVELOPMENT: AN EFL CLASSROOM STUDY (2022) · cites this paper as Rohrer & Pashler, 2007
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Cites
The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x · Cited by 2,037
Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis.
Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354 · Cited by 1,888
Self-citationPrinciples of Learning and Memory
Murdock, B. B., & Crowder, R. G. (1977) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422060 · Cited by 1,306
(2013) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/11251.1573-1952 · Cited by 519
When Does Feedback Facilitate Learning of Words?
Pashler, H., Cepeda, N. J., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.1.3 · Cited by 445
Self-citationThe shuffling of mathematics problems improves learning
Rohrer, D., & Taylor, K. (2007) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-007-9015-8 · Cited by 357
Self-citationGeneralizing test-enhanced learning from the laboratory to the classroom
Mcdaniel, M. A., Roediger, H. L., & Mcdermott, K. B. (2007) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03194052 · Cited by 326
Maintenance of knowledge: Questions about memory we forgot to ask.
Bahrick, H. P. (1979) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.108.3.296 · Cited by 325
Optimizing distributed practice
Cepeda, N. J., Coburn, N., Rohrer, D., Wixted, J. T., Mozer, M. C., & Pashler, H. (2009) · Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.236 · Cited by 296
Self-citationEffect of overlearning on retention.
Driskell, J. E., Willis, R. P., & Copper, C. (1992) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.77.5.615 · Cited by 296
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- National Geographic, 2006, 2006 Geographic Literacy Study
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Optimising learning using flashcards: Spacing is more effective than cramming
Kornell, N. (2009) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1537 · Cited by 350
Metacognitive awareness of learning strategies in undergraduates
McCabe, J. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-010-0035-2 · Cited by 308
The Psychology of Academic Achievement
Winne, P. H., & Nesbit, J. C. (2009) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100348 · Cited by 320
Interleaving Helps Students Distinguish among Similar Concepts
Rohrer, D. (2012) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-012-9201-3 · Cited by 237
Self-citationImproving Outcome of Psychosocial Treatments by Enhancing Memory and Learning
Harvey, A. G., Lee, J., Williams, J. J., Hollon, S. D., Walker, M. P., Thompson, M. A., & Smith, R. (2014) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691614521781 · Cited by 169
Metadata
- Authors
- Rohrer, D., & Pashler, H.
- Affiliations
- University of South Florida (US)
- University of California San Diego (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rohrer, Doug
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2007-08
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 183-186
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- OpenAlex
- W2044983254
- Cited by
- 153
- References
- 19
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 2.50
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.escholarship.org
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Digital Commons - University of South Florida (University of South Florida) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Keywords
- long-term retention, spacing effect, forgetting, mastery, mathematics learning, learning strategies
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